TIPS PACARAN YANG ISLAMI
(pacaran itu haram: http://ekomuda10.blogspot.com )
situs anti pacaran: www.majalah-elfata.com
1. Jangan berduaan dengan pacar di tempat sepi, kecuali ditemani mahram dari sang wanita (jadi bertiga)
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“Janganlah seorang laki-laki berkholwat (berduaan) dengan seorang wanita kecuali bersama mahromnya…”[HR Bukhori: 3006,523, Muslim 1341, Lihat Mausu'ah Al Manahi Asy Syari'ah 2/102]
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“Tidaklah seorang lelaki bersepi-sepian (berduaan) dengan seorang perempuan melainkan setan yang ketiganya“ (HSR.Tirmidzi)
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2. Jangan pergi dengan pacar lebih dari sehari semalam kecuali si wanita ditemani mahramnya
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“Tidak halal bagi wanita yang beriman kepada Allah dan hari akhir untuk bepergian sehari semalam tidak bersama mahromnya.” [HR Bukhori: 1088, Muslim 1339]
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3. Jangan berjalan-jalan dengan pacar ke tempat yang jauh kecuali si wanita ditemani mahramnya
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“…..jangan bepergian dengan wanita kecuali bersama mahromnya….”[HR Bukhori: 3006,523, Muslim 1341]
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4. Jangan bersentuhan dengan pacar, jangan berpelukan, jangan meraba, jangan mencium, bahkan berjabat tangan juga tidak boleh, apalagi yang lebih dari sekedar jabat tangan
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“Seandainya kepala seseorang di tusuk dengan jarum dari besi itu lebih baik dari pada menyentuh wanita yang tidak halal baginya.” (Hadits hasan riwayat Thobroni dalam Al-Mu’jam Kabir 20/174/386 dan Rauyani dalam Musnad: 1283, lihat Ash Shohihah 1/447/226)
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Bersabda Rasulullahi Shallallahu ‘alaihi wassallam: “Sesungguhnya saya tidak berjabat tangan dengan wanita.” [HR Malik 2/982, Nasa'i 7/149, Tirmidzi 1597, Ibnu Majah 2874, ahmad 6/357, dll]
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5. Jangan memandang aurat pacar, masing-masing harus memakai pakaian yang menutupi auratnya
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“Katakanlah kepada orang-orang beriman laki-laki hendaklah mereka menahan pandangannya dan menjaga kemaluannya..” (Al Qur’an Surat An Nur ayat 30)
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“…zina kedua matanya adalah memandang….” (H.R. Bukhari, Muslim, Abu Dawud dan Nasa’i)
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6. Jangan membicarakan/melakukan hal-hal yang membuat terjerumus kedalam zina
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“Dan janganlah kamu mendekati zina, sesungguhnya zina itu adalah suatu perbuatan yang keji dan suatu jalan yang jelek” (Al Qur’an Surat Al Isra 32)
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“Kedua tangan berzina dan zinanya adalah meraba, kedua kaki berzina dan zinanya adalah melangkah, dan mulut berzina dan zinanya adalah mencium.” (H.R. Muslim dan Abu Dawud)
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7. Jangan menunda-nunda menikah jika sudah saling merasa cocok
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“Wahai para pemuda ! Barangsiapa diantara kalian berkemampuan untuk nikah, maka nikahlah, karena nikah itu lebih menundukan pandangan, dan lebih membentengi farji (kemaluan). Dan barangsiapa yang tidak mampu, maka hendaklah ia puasa (shaum), karena shaum itu dapat membentengi dirinya”. (Hadits Shahih Riwayat Ahmad, Bukhari, Muslim, Tirmidzi, Nasa’i, Darimi, Ibnu Jarud dan Baihaqi).
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“Yang paling banyak menjerumuskan manusia ke-dalam neraka adalah mulut dan kemaluan.” (H.R. Turmudzi dan dia berkata hadits ini shahih.)
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WARNING:
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sebenarnya banyak ulama dan ustadz yang mengharamkan pacaran, misalnya saja ustadz Muhammad Umar as Sewed. jadi sebaiknya segera menikahlah dan jangan berpacaran…
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sebuah syair mengatakan:
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kadang peristiwa besar bermula dari hal-hal kecil
permulaannya memandang, lalu tersenyum, kemudian menyapa, lalu mengobrol, lantas janjian, kemudian berkencan, dan akhirnya berzina
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Bagi yang sudah terlanjur berbuat dosa maka bertaubatlah dan jangan putus asa, Allah pasti mengampuni hambanya yang bertaubat dan memohon ampun…
Selasa, 09 November 2010
Teka-teki Umum
Apa perbedaan antara apel dan upil?
Kalau apel di taruh di atas meja, kalau upil dioles di bawah meja
70 hal apa saja yang disenangi wanita?
1 belanja, yang lainnya… 69
Apa yang menyebabkan jakarta sering KEBANJIRAN...???
AIR
Hijau, Luas dan Panjang serta lebar, asin apa hayo ??
Lapangan bola di kasih garam
Mengapa film Koboy pasti lebih gaya kalo ngerokok sambil naek kuda?
soalnya kalo sambil ngupil susah betul.
Knapa "Dukun" selalu bakar kemenyan??
Karena kalo bakar sate, pasiennya pada ikut laper.
5 orang berjalan di bawah satu payung kecil tapi kenapa tidak ada satupun orang yang kehujanan ?
Karena tidak hujan
Bulan apa yang tidak ada dalam kalender ?
Bu Lani...........
Pocong apa yang disenengin ibu2?
Pocongan harga!
Kenapa hantu cewek umumnya pakai daster panjang ?
karena kalau pakai tank top ntar kuburan jadi rame bunyi "suit -suiiiiitttt"
hantu apa yang paling pinter ngitung2?
han, tu, tri, four, five, dst...
Apa bedanya orang kurus dan orang gemuk?
Orang kurus makan hati, orang gemuk makan tempat
Lampu apa yang di pecahin keluar orang?
Lampu Tetangga..
Bandara mana yang disukai pria playboy?
Juanda (apalagi juanda kembang)
Sapu apa yang selalu menempel ?
Sapu yang tak bisa lepas... ( lagunya Reza ..... )
Apa yand didapatkan oleh 2 orang pencuri yang mencuri kalender?
masing2 dapat enam bulan.
Di atas putih trus dibawah kuning, ayo apaan tuh?
pocong nginjak e'e
Sate apa yg dari jepang..??
Sateria Baja Hitam..
Lemari apa yg bisa masuk kantong..??
LEMARIBUAN..!!
masjid di tengah laut kelihatan apanya?....
kelihatan bohongnya!!!
kenapa ninja kepalanya di tutupi pakai kain?..
kalau pakai daun pisang dikirain nasi bungkus!
bis apa yang ragu²
bisa iya, bisa ngga...!!!
Apa nama penyakit terkenal di cina?
Kung Flu
Ikan apa yang matanya paling kecil sedunia?
ikan teri cina
Apa yang tidak enak dari sop buntut?
ya Buntutnya.........., Harus BAYAR!!
Mengapa bahasa Inggris wanita disebut WOMEN?
Karena disaat Adam melihat perempuan pertama yaitu Hawa ia mengatakan wou..........man...!!!
Apa persamaan tukang sate dan tukang soto?
sama2 nggak jual bakso!
Merah, kuning, hijau, coklat muda & coklat tua jadi satu, apaan tuh..??
Bob Marley masuk pramuka
Om Siapa yang ga bisa makan jambu ?
Om pong
Janin apa yg bs nyanyi ...
Janin Roses
Apa bahasa jepangnya kakus??
TAIK WONG TOK hihihihihi
Gimana caranya supaya kereta api dan motor kalau ditimbang beratnya sama?
kereta api dan motornya di foto
Jus apa yang menyakitkan?
Jus a friend..ga bisa jadi pacar
Bagaimana caranya mengetahui letak kepala & ekor cacing?
Gelitik'i aja badannya, nti klo dia tertawa kegelian pasti terdengar swaranya & itu pasti kepalanya.
Jauh dekat 350 perak?
SMS dong. Hahahahaha....
Kenapa kucing kalo dikejar anjing selalu menoleh ke belakang?
Soalnya nggak punya kaca spion
Nenek-nenek jatuh di kali, munculnya dimana?
Di koran
Kebo apa yang bikin orang capek?
Kebogor jalan kaki
Monyet apa yang nyebelin ?
Monyetelin tv kagak bisa, monyetelin radio kagak bisa juga
Kalo ditutup dia akan mengintip,tapi kalo dibuka dia akan marah-marah?
Orang naik becak pada waktu hujan
Lubang apa yang paling kecil di dunia???
Lubang pantat… angin aja kalo mau lewat mesti menjerit
Jauh dimata dekat di hati……apa’an……?
Usus!!!
Apa bedanya pemurung dengan pemulung?
Pemurung tidak pernah merasa gembira, sedangkan pemulung tidak pelnah melasa gembila
Kenapa mayat dibungkus kain putih?
Pake hitam…??? Siapa takut!!!!
Kenapa Afrika negaranya miskin?
Karena terlalu sibuk ngeriting rambut
Olah raga apa yang paling berat?
Catur. Masa kuda ama benteng diangkat-angkat
Siapakah presiden RI yang terseksi?
Pa ha Bibi
Kenapa stir mobil letaknya kalau ‘nggak di kanan ya di kiri. Kok’nggak di tengah?
Biar gampang kalau mau ngeludah
Kenapa Sri Rama memilih Sinta?
Karena kulit Santi tak seputih kulit Sinta
Kenapa Superman celana dalamnya merah?
Karena lupa pake pembalut
Kenapa Superman bajunya pake huruf S?
Karena kalau pake M atau XL kegedean
Kenapa superman gak kawin ama wonderwoman?
Ya emang nggak jodoh
Kenapa Batman lambangnya bukan B?
Karena udah dipake sama Bobo…
Batman kalo tidur di mana hayo?
Bedcover
Kenapa suku Irian memakai koteka?
Karena kalau pakai daun pisang ntar dikira lontong
Kenapa kijang tiada duanya?
Karena indosiar memang untuk anda
Bahasa Inggrisnya nasi apa? Rice
Bahasa Inggrisnya panjang apa? Long
Kalau bahasa Inggrisnya nasi panjang apa?
Lontong
Kenapa di dalam bajaj nggak ada nyamuk?
Karena nyamuk sini cuma takut tiga roda
Siapa wanita Indonesia yang paling kuat?
Nyonya Meneer, berdiri sejak tahun 1918
Apa bedanya aku dan kau?
Aku dan kau, jelekan kau (nyanyiin pake lagu susu dancow)
Kenapa kalo lagi mikir orang suka megang jidatnya?
Ya iyalah, masa megang jidat orang laen!
Benda apa yang paling matre’?
Telepon umum, khan kalo dikasih uang baru mau kerja
Apa bedanya sarung dan kotak?
Kalau sarung itu bisa kotak-kotak kalau kotak tidak bisa sarung-sarung
Sepatu siapa yang nggak bisa lepas?
Ya sepatunya reza donk (kan sepatu yang tak bisa lepas: dinyanyiin)
Sapu apa yang selalu menempel?
Sapu yang tak bisa lepas… (lagunya Reza juga)
Ada dua orang bapak dan dua orang anak, mereka pergi ke hutan untuk
berburu kancil, sialnya mereka hanya dapat tiga ekor, tetapi waktu
kembali ke rumah, masing-masing membawa satu ekor. Mungkinkah atau
mustahil???
Jawaban disertai alasan: yang pergi berburu hanya 3 orang, seorang kakek,
seorang ayah dan seorang anak, tul nggak? Mikir dong hehehe… :d
Tiang apa yang enak?
Tiang-tiang minum te!
Naiknya cepet, turunnya lambat banget…?
Ingus!
Tank apa yang moncongnya ke bawah?
Tankurep, hehehe…
Nembak lantai kena hidung apa hayo?
Kentut woi
Sma apa yang badannya gede-gede?
Sma CK DOWN
Pohon apa yang paling banyak pada hari lebaran?
Pohon maaf lahir dan batin
Benda apa yang besar putih bersayap dan rasanya asin?
Pesawat terbang jatuh ke laut donk…!!!
Lemari apa yang bisa masuk kantong?
Lema ribu
Dewa apa yang kesepian?
Dewakto sendere
Ada berapa hurufkah dalam abjad?
Ada 5 (lima) a-b-j-a-d
Apa bedanya wayang, sepatu, dan jengkol?
Kalo wayang ada yang namanya semar, kalo sepatu disemir, kalo jengkol disemur
Kentang apa yang bisa bikin bayi ketawa?
Kentangtingtungtingtangtingtung
Saya ada jeruk lima kamu minta minta satu, sisanya berapa?
Ya tetap lima soalnya kamu nggak dikasih…
Apa yang kalo naik turun, kalo turun naik?
Tukang Beca, kalo jalannya naik dia turun buat dorong, kalo jalannya turun dia naik lagi
Kenapa aspal itu hitam?
Kalau coklat lo ambil ntar
Kenapa orang takut kehujanan?
Coz tuh hujan beraninya kroyokan, coba klo satu-satu, gak ada yang takut khan?
Kenapa liang anus keriput?
Soalnya dicuci-dicuci, disetrika enggak…
Orang sibuk paling sabar duduk di mana?
Di jamban
Ban apa yang bisa makan, joget, nyanyi, dan ngomong?
Banci
Uang kalau dilempar jadi apa?
Jadi rebutan
Sepatu biru kecebur di Laut Merah jadi apa?
Jadi luntur
Kenapa batu kalau dimasukkan ke air tenggelam?
Soalnya batu enggak bisa berenang!
Ada nggak buah rambutan yang berbahaya kalau kita makan?
Ada, kalau makannya di tengah jalan tol!
Apakah ilmu pasti itu?
Ilmu yang melarang soal-soal seperti ini: satu ditambah satu barangkali dua, dsb!
Supaya enak biji nangka dimasaknya bagaimana?
Cari biji nangka yang paling kecil. Terus 1 biji itu dibelah 8.
Salah satu potongannya direbus. Setelah matang dimakan dengan 3 potong ayam goreng.
Setelah habis, minumlah juice durian. Pasti enak!
Bagaimana orang cadel tertawa?
Teltawa telkekeh kekeh
Sebutkan perbedaan segelas es campur dengan segelas air putih?
Kira-kira lima ratus rupiah!
Bagaimana cara yang paling cepat menggemukkan badan?
Masuk ke sarang lebah!
Kalau hitam dibilang bersih, kalau putih dibilang kotor?
Papan tulis!
Apa persamaan uang dan rahasia?
Dua-duanya susah dipegang!
Selalu diam di pojok tapi selalu keliling dunia?
Perangko!
Bagaimana cara melipatgandakan uang dengan cepat?
Taruh di depan kaca!
Polisi melihat sopir truk di Rambu larangan tetapi tidak menangkapnya.
Kenapa? Karena sopir truk itu sedang berjalan kaki!
Apa namanya orang yang membawa 3 ekor kelinci di kepalanya?
Orang enggak ada kerjaan!
Siapa yang potong rambut tiap hari tapi tidak botak?
Tukang pangkas!
Yang membuat tidak membutuhkannya. Yang membeli tidak memakainya.
Yang memakai tidak memesannya? Apa itu?
Batu Nisan!
Yang jual enggak doyan, yang doyan enggak beli, yang beli enggak doyan?
Rumput (makanan sapi).
Apa beda matahari sama bulan?
Matahari ada diskon, bulan enggak ada
Kenapa Bumi makin panas?
Karena Matahari buka cabang di mana-mana
Gimana cara terbang ke matahari tanpa kepanasan?
Perginya malam hari
Apa yang dikatakan orang bisu pertama kali bisa ngomong?
Tes… tes… 1 2 3 dicoba…, Sound Check, Sound Check…!
Apa yang luarnya mulus dalamnya amburadul?
Nenek-nenek naek mercy
Kapan sebaiknya kita membuka pintu ?
Kalo pintu tertutup
Kalo kamu di tempat gelap dan dingin dan kamu punya satu korek api.
disitu ada obor, lilin, dan kayu bakar. apa yg pertama-tama kamu hidupin?
Korek api dong
Siapa yang biasanya adzan di tv?
Saat. (ingat : saat adzan maghrib untuk daerah jakarta dan sekitarnya)
Becak apa yang tidak bisa di cat ?
Becak hilang
Sabun apa yg bau..??
Sabuntar-sabuntar lu kentut, sih..!!
Apa bahasa Inggrisnya orang Bali sedang jalan - jalan keliling Amerika ?
Made in Amerika
Apa bedanya tukang pajak ama palak?
Kalau tukang pajak nagihnya pake surat, kalau tukang palak pake urat!
Kenapa di sungai amazon banyak ikan piranha?
Karena.... itu jangan kesana, he...he...he...
Sebutkan 2 jenis mata yang enak rasanya?
MATAbak manis, dan MATAbak telor.
Buah semangka, dilubangin, dikasih es batu, dikocok-kocok terus digelindingin. Jadi apa?
Jadi jauh
Buah apa yang gak punya otak?
Semua buah dong
Apa perbedaan antara apel dan upil?
Kalau apel ditaruh di atas meja. Kalau upil dioles di bawah meja.
Kenapa meja bagian bawahnya selalu kasar, tidak sehalus bagian atasnya?
Karena bagian bawah meja banyak upil yang udah kering.
Buah apa yang berakhiran huruf “K”?
Mangga busuk, pepaya busuk, apel busuk…
Rambut putih namanya uban, rambut merah namanya pirang, kalo rambut hijau namanya apa?
Rambutan belum mateng…
Anak apa yang paling jelek di dunia?
Anak-anak bilang sih elo !
Apa beda org kurus dengan orang gendut?
org kurus udah dikasih hati minta jantung, kalo orang gendut udah dikasih hati minta daging.
Kenapa jumlah pemain sepak bola ada 11 orang?
Soalnya klo cuman 4 orang namanya lg maen Gaple
Apa perbedaan antara apel dan upil?
Kalau apel di taruh di atas meja, kalau upil dioles di bawah meja
70 hal apa saja yang disenangi wanita?
1 belanja, yang lainnya… 69
Apa yang menyebabkan jakarta sering KEBANJIRAN...???
AIR
Hijau, Luas dan Panjang serta lebar, asin apa hayo ??
Lapangan bola di kasih garam
Mengapa film Koboy pasti lebih gaya kalo ngerokok sambil naek kuda?
soalnya kalo sambil ngupil susah betul.
Knapa "Dukun" selalu bakar kemenyan??
Karena kalo bakar sate, pasiennya pada ikut laper.
5 orang berjalan di bawah satu payung kecil tapi kenapa tidak ada satupun orang yang kehujanan ?
Karena tidak hujan
Bulan apa yang tidak ada dalam kalender ?
Bu Lani...........
Pocong apa yang disenengin ibu2?
Pocongan harga!
Kenapa hantu cewek umumnya pakai daster panjang ?
karena kalau pakai tank top ntar kuburan jadi rame bunyi "suit -suiiiiitttt"
hantu apa yang paling pinter ngitung2?
han, tu, tri, four, five, dst...
Apa bedanya orang kurus dan orang gemuk?
Orang kurus makan hati, orang gemuk makan tempat
Lampu apa yang di pecahin keluar orang?
Lampu Tetangga..
Bandara mana yang disukai pria playboy?
Juanda (apalagi juanda kembang)
Sapu apa yang selalu menempel ?
Sapu yang tak bisa lepas... ( lagunya Reza ..... )
Apa yand didapatkan oleh 2 orang pencuri yang mencuri kalender?
masing2 dapat enam bulan.
Di atas putih trus dibawah kuning, ayo apaan tuh?
pocong nginjak e'e
Sate apa yg dari jepang..??
Sateria Baja Hitam..
Lemari apa yg bisa masuk kantong..??
LEMARIBUAN..!!
masjid di tengah laut kelihatan apanya?....
kelihatan bohongnya!!!
kenapa ninja kepalanya di tutupi pakai kain?..
kalau pakai daun pisang dikirain nasi bungkus!
bis apa yang ragu²
bisa iya, bisa ngga...!!!
Apa nama penyakit terkenal di cina?
Kung Flu
Ikan apa yang matanya paling kecil sedunia?
ikan teri cina
Apa yang tidak enak dari sop buntut?
ya Buntutnya.........., Harus BAYAR!!
Mengapa bahasa Inggris wanita disebut WOMEN?
Karena disaat Adam melihat perempuan pertama yaitu Hawa ia mengatakan wou..........man...!!!
Apa persamaan tukang sate dan tukang soto?
sama2 nggak jual bakso!
Merah, kuning, hijau, coklat muda & coklat tua jadi satu, apaan tuh..??
Bob Marley masuk pramuka
Om Siapa yang ga bisa makan jambu ?
Om pong
Janin apa yg bs nyanyi ...
Janin Roses
Apa bahasa jepangnya kakus??
TAIK WONG TOK hihihihihi
Gimana caranya supaya kereta api dan motor kalau ditimbang beratnya sama?
kereta api dan motornya di foto
Jus apa yang menyakitkan?
Jus a friend..ga bisa jadi pacar
Bagaimana caranya mengetahui letak kepala & ekor cacing?
Gelitik'i aja badannya, nti klo dia tertawa kegelian pasti terdengar swaranya & itu pasti kepalanya.
Jauh dekat 350 perak?
SMS dong. Hahahahaha....
Kenapa kucing kalo dikejar anjing selalu menoleh ke belakang?
Soalnya nggak punya kaca spion
Nenek-nenek jatuh di kali, munculnya dimana?
Di koran
Kebo apa yang bikin orang capek?
Kebogor jalan kaki
Monyet apa yang nyebelin ?
Monyetelin tv kagak bisa, monyetelin radio kagak bisa juga
Kalo ditutup dia akan mengintip,tapi kalo dibuka dia akan marah-marah?
Orang naik becak pada waktu hujan
Lubang apa yang paling kecil di dunia???
Lubang pantat… angin aja kalo mau lewat mesti menjerit
Jauh dimata dekat di hati……apa’an……?
Usus!!!
Apa bedanya pemurung dengan pemulung?
Pemurung tidak pernah merasa gembira, sedangkan pemulung tidak pelnah melasa gembila
Kenapa mayat dibungkus kain putih?
Pake hitam…??? Siapa takut!!!!
Kenapa Afrika negaranya miskin?
Karena terlalu sibuk ngeriting rambut
Olah raga apa yang paling berat?
Catur. Masa kuda ama benteng diangkat-angkat
Siapakah presiden RI yang terseksi?
Pa ha Bibi
Kenapa stir mobil letaknya kalau ‘nggak di kanan ya di kiri. Kok’nggak di tengah?
Biar gampang kalau mau ngeludah
Kenapa Sri Rama memilih Sinta?
Karena kulit Santi tak seputih kulit Sinta
Kenapa Superman celana dalamnya merah?
Karena lupa pake pembalut
Kenapa Superman bajunya pake huruf S?
Karena kalau pake M atau XL kegedean
Kenapa superman gak kawin ama wonderwoman?
Ya emang nggak jodoh
Kenapa Batman lambangnya bukan B?
Karena udah dipake sama Bobo…
Batman kalo tidur di mana hayo?
Bedcover
Kenapa suku Irian memakai koteka?
Karena kalau pakai daun pisang ntar dikira lontong
Kenapa kijang tiada duanya?
Karena indosiar memang untuk anda
Bahasa Inggrisnya nasi apa? Rice
Bahasa Inggrisnya panjang apa? Long
Kalau bahasa Inggrisnya nasi panjang apa?
Lontong
Kenapa di dalam bajaj nggak ada nyamuk?
Karena nyamuk sini cuma takut tiga roda
Siapa wanita Indonesia yang paling kuat?
Nyonya Meneer, berdiri sejak tahun 1918
Apa bedanya aku dan kau?
Aku dan kau, jelekan kau (nyanyiin pake lagu susu dancow)
Kenapa kalo lagi mikir orang suka megang jidatnya?
Ya iyalah, masa megang jidat orang laen!
Benda apa yang paling matre’?
Telepon umum, khan kalo dikasih uang baru mau kerja
Apa bedanya sarung dan kotak?
Kalau sarung itu bisa kotak-kotak kalau kotak tidak bisa sarung-sarung
Sepatu siapa yang nggak bisa lepas?
Ya sepatunya reza donk (kan sepatu yang tak bisa lepas: dinyanyiin)
Sapu apa yang selalu menempel?
Sapu yang tak bisa lepas… (lagunya Reza juga)
Ada dua orang bapak dan dua orang anak, mereka pergi ke hutan untuk
berburu kancil, sialnya mereka hanya dapat tiga ekor, tetapi waktu
kembali ke rumah, masing-masing membawa satu ekor. Mungkinkah atau
mustahil???
Jawaban disertai alasan: yang pergi berburu hanya 3 orang, seorang kakek,
seorang ayah dan seorang anak, tul nggak? Mikir dong hehehe… :d
Tiang apa yang enak?
Tiang-tiang minum te!
Naiknya cepet, turunnya lambat banget…?
Ingus!
Tank apa yang moncongnya ke bawah?
Tankurep, hehehe…
Nembak lantai kena hidung apa hayo?
Kentut woi
Sma apa yang badannya gede-gede?
Sma CK DOWN
Pohon apa yang paling banyak pada hari lebaran?
Pohon maaf lahir dan batin
Benda apa yang besar putih bersayap dan rasanya asin?
Pesawat terbang jatuh ke laut donk…!!!
Lemari apa yang bisa masuk kantong?
Lema ribu
Dewa apa yang kesepian?
Dewakto sendere
Ada berapa hurufkah dalam abjad?
Ada 5 (lima) a-b-j-a-d
Apa bedanya wayang, sepatu, dan jengkol?
Kalo wayang ada yang namanya semar, kalo sepatu disemir, kalo jengkol disemur
Kentang apa yang bisa bikin bayi ketawa?
Kentangtingtungtingtangtingtung
Saya ada jeruk lima kamu minta minta satu, sisanya berapa?
Ya tetap lima soalnya kamu nggak dikasih…
Apa yang kalo naik turun, kalo turun naik?
Tukang Beca, kalo jalannya naik dia turun buat dorong, kalo jalannya turun dia naik lagi
Kenapa aspal itu hitam?
Kalau coklat lo ambil ntar
Kenapa orang takut kehujanan?
Coz tuh hujan beraninya kroyokan, coba klo satu-satu, gak ada yang takut khan?
Kenapa liang anus keriput?
Soalnya dicuci-dicuci, disetrika enggak…
Orang sibuk paling sabar duduk di mana?
Di jamban
Ban apa yang bisa makan, joget, nyanyi, dan ngomong?
Banci
Uang kalau dilempar jadi apa?
Jadi rebutan
Sepatu biru kecebur di Laut Merah jadi apa?
Jadi luntur
Kenapa batu kalau dimasukkan ke air tenggelam?
Soalnya batu enggak bisa berenang!
Ada nggak buah rambutan yang berbahaya kalau kita makan?
Ada, kalau makannya di tengah jalan tol!
Apakah ilmu pasti itu?
Ilmu yang melarang soal-soal seperti ini: satu ditambah satu barangkali dua, dsb!
Supaya enak biji nangka dimasaknya bagaimana?
Cari biji nangka yang paling kecil. Terus 1 biji itu dibelah 8.
Salah satu potongannya direbus. Setelah matang dimakan dengan 3 potong ayam goreng.
Setelah habis, minumlah juice durian. Pasti enak!
Bagaimana orang cadel tertawa?
Teltawa telkekeh kekeh
Sebutkan perbedaan segelas es campur dengan segelas air putih?
Kira-kira lima ratus rupiah!
Bagaimana cara yang paling cepat menggemukkan badan?
Masuk ke sarang lebah!
Kalau hitam dibilang bersih, kalau putih dibilang kotor?
Papan tulis!
Apa persamaan uang dan rahasia?
Dua-duanya susah dipegang!
Selalu diam di pojok tapi selalu keliling dunia?
Perangko!
Bagaimana cara melipatgandakan uang dengan cepat?
Taruh di depan kaca!
Polisi melihat sopir truk di Rambu larangan tetapi tidak menangkapnya.
Kenapa? Karena sopir truk itu sedang berjalan kaki!
Apa namanya orang yang membawa 3 ekor kelinci di kepalanya?
Orang enggak ada kerjaan!
Siapa yang potong rambut tiap hari tapi tidak botak?
Tukang pangkas!
Yang membuat tidak membutuhkannya. Yang membeli tidak memakainya.
Yang memakai tidak memesannya? Apa itu?
Batu Nisan!
Yang jual enggak doyan, yang doyan enggak beli, yang beli enggak doyan?
Rumput (makanan sapi).
Apa beda matahari sama bulan?
Matahari ada diskon, bulan enggak ada
Kenapa Bumi makin panas?
Karena Matahari buka cabang di mana-mana
Gimana cara terbang ke matahari tanpa kepanasan?
Perginya malam hari
Apa yang dikatakan orang bisu pertama kali bisa ngomong?
Tes… tes… 1 2 3 dicoba…, Sound Check, Sound Check…!
Apa yang luarnya mulus dalamnya amburadul?
Nenek-nenek naek mercy
Kapan sebaiknya kita membuka pintu ?
Kalo pintu tertutup
Kalo kamu di tempat gelap dan dingin dan kamu punya satu korek api.
disitu ada obor, lilin, dan kayu bakar. apa yg pertama-tama kamu hidupin?
Korek api dong
Siapa yang biasanya adzan di tv?
Saat. (ingat : saat adzan maghrib untuk daerah jakarta dan sekitarnya)
Becak apa yang tidak bisa di cat ?
Becak hilang
Sabun apa yg bau..??
Sabuntar-sabuntar lu kentut, sih..!!
Apa bahasa Inggrisnya orang Bali sedang jalan - jalan keliling Amerika ?
Made in Amerika
Apa bedanya tukang pajak ama palak?
Kalau tukang pajak nagihnya pake surat, kalau tukang palak pake urat!
Kenapa di sungai amazon banyak ikan piranha?
Karena.... itu jangan kesana, he...he...he...
Sebutkan 2 jenis mata yang enak rasanya?
MATAbak manis, dan MATAbak telor.
Buah semangka, dilubangin, dikasih es batu, dikocok-kocok terus digelindingin. Jadi apa?
Jadi jauh
Buah apa yang gak punya otak?
Semua buah dong
Apa perbedaan antara apel dan upil?
Kalau apel ditaruh di atas meja. Kalau upil dioles di bawah meja.
Kenapa meja bagian bawahnya selalu kasar, tidak sehalus bagian atasnya?
Karena bagian bawah meja banyak upil yang udah kering.
Buah apa yang berakhiran huruf “K”?
Mangga busuk, pepaya busuk, apel busuk…
Rambut putih namanya uban, rambut merah namanya pirang, kalo rambut hijau namanya apa?
Rambutan belum mateng…
Anak apa yang paling jelek di dunia?
Anak-anak bilang sih elo !
Apa beda org kurus dengan orang gendut?
org kurus udah dikasih hati minta jantung, kalo orang gendut udah dikasih hati minta daging.
Kenapa jumlah pemain sepak bola ada 11 orang?
Soalnya klo cuman 4 orang namanya lg maen Gaple
Kamis, 28 Oktober 2010
Bukittinggi's City
Bukittinggi
The city has its origins in five villages which served as the basis for a marketplace.
The city was known as Fort de Kock during colonial times in reference to the Dutch outpost established here in 1825 during the Padri war. The fort was founded by Captain Bauer at the top of Jirek hill and later named after the then Lieautenant Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, Hendrik Merkus de Kock. The first road connecting the region with the west coast was built between 1833 and 1841 via the Anai Gorge, easing troop movements, cutting the costs of transportation and providing an economic stimulus for the agricultural economy.In 1856 a teacher-training college (Kweekschool) was founded in the city, the first in Sumatra, as part of a policy to provide educational opportunities to the indigenous population.A rail line connecting the city with Payakumbuh and Padang was constructed between 1891 and 1894.
During the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia in World War II , the city was the headquarters for the Japanese 25th Army, the force which occupied Sumatera. The headquarters was moved to the city in April 1943 from Singapiore, and remained until the Japanese surrender in August 1945.
The city has its origins in five villages which served as the basis for a marketplace.
The city was known as Fort de Kock during colonial times in reference to the Dutch outpost established here in 1825 during the Padri war. The fort was founded by Captain Bauer at the top of Jirek hill and later named after the then Lieautenant Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies, Hendrik Merkus de Kock. The first road connecting the region with the west coast was built between 1833 and 1841 via the Anai Gorge, easing troop movements, cutting the costs of transportation and providing an economic stimulus for the agricultural economy.In 1856 a teacher-training college (Kweekschool) was founded in the city, the first in Sumatra, as part of a policy to provide educational opportunities to the indigenous population.A rail line connecting the city with Payakumbuh and Padang was constructed between 1891 and 1894.
During the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia in World War II , the city was the headquarters for the Japanese 25th Army, the force which occupied Sumatera. The headquarters was moved to the city in April 1943 from Singapiore, and remained until the Japanese surrender in August 1945.
Mosque in central Bukittinggi
During the Indonesian National Rvolution , the city was the headquarters for the Emergency govement of the Republic of Indonesia (PDRI) from December 19, 1948 to July 13, 1949. During the second 'Police Action' Dutch forces invaded and occupied the city on December 22, 1948, having earlier bombed it in preparation. The city was surrendered to Republican officials in December 1949 after the Dutch government recognized Indonesian sovereignty.
The city was officially renamed Bukittinggi in 1949, replacing its colonial name. From 1950 until 1957, Bukittinggi was the capital city of a province called Central Sumatra, which encompassed West Sumatra, Riau and Jambi. In February 1958, during a revolt in Sumatra against the Indonesian government, rebels proclaimed the Revolutionary Goverment of the Republic Indonesia (PRRI) in Bukittinggi. The Indonesian government had recaptured the town by May the same year.
A group of Muslim men had planned to bomb a cafe in the city frequented by foreign tourists in October 2007, but the plot was aborted due to the risk of killing Muslim individuals in the vicinity. Since 2008 the city administration has banned Valentine's Day and New Year's celebrations as they consider them not in line with Minangkabau traditions or Islam, and can lead to "immoral acts" such as young couples hugging and kissing.
The city was officially renamed Bukittinggi in 1949, replacing its colonial name. From 1950 until 1957, Bukittinggi was the capital city of a province called Central Sumatra, which encompassed West Sumatra, Riau and Jambi. In February 1958, during a revolt in Sumatra against the Indonesian government, rebels proclaimed the Revolutionary Goverment of the Republic Indonesia (PRRI) in Bukittinggi. The Indonesian government had recaptured the town by May the same year.
A group of Muslim men had planned to bomb a cafe in the city frequented by foreign tourists in October 2007, but the plot was aborted due to the risk of killing Muslim individuals in the vicinity. Since 2008 the city administration has banned Valentine's Day and New Year's celebrations as they consider them not in line with Minangkabau traditions or Islam, and can lead to "immoral acts" such as young couples hugging and kissing.
Administration
Bukittinggi is divided in 3 subdistricts (kecamatan), which are further divided into 5 villages (nagari) and 24 kelurahan. The subdistricts are:
Guguk Panjang, Mandiangin Koto Selayan, and Aur Birugo Tigo Baleh.
Transportation
Bukittinggi is connected to Padang by road, though a dysfunctional railway line also exists. For inner-city transport, Bukittinggi employs a public transportation system known as Mersi (Merapi Singgalang) and IKABE that connect locations within the city. The city also still preserves the traditional horse-cart widely known in the area as Bendi, although the use is limited and more popular to be used as vehicle for tourist, both domestic and foreign.
Tourism
It is a city popular with tourists due to the climate and central location. Attractions within the city include:
- Ngarai Sianok (Sianok Canyon)
- Lobang Jepang (Japanese Caves) - a network of underground bunkers & tunnels built by the Japanese during World War II
- Jam Gadang - a large clock tower built by the Dutch in 1926.
- Pasar Atas and Pasar Bawah - traditional markets in downtown.
- Taman Bundo Kanduang park. The park includes a replica Rumah Gadang (literally: big house, with the distinctive Minangkabau roof architecture) used as a museum of Minangkabau culture, and a zoo. The Dutch hilltop outpost Fort de Kock is connected to the zoo by the Limpapeh pedestrian overpass.
- Museum Rumah Kelahiran Bung Hatta (Museum of Bung Hatta Birthplace) - the house where Indonesian founding father Mohammad Hatta was born, now a museum.
Bukittinggi
History of Railways in Indonesia
In June 17, 1864, Governor-General Mr. L. A. J. W. Baron Sloet van Beele broke ground for the first railway line in Java, which was then part of Netherlands East Indies. The line belonged to the Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (Netherlands East Indies Railway Company), and the first line in operation was between Semarang and Tanggung, opened in August 10, 1867.
The line was then unprofitable, so the company turned to the government for help in completing the rest of the 166 km long main line to Yogyakarta through the Vorstenlanden. The great cost involved in the building was partly caused by the decision to build the tracks at the standard gauge (1435 mm/4' 8½"). This also resulted in the selection of a narrower gauge for most of the later construction, after a 1869 report by J. A. Kool and N. H. Henket showed the economy and suitability of 1067 mm (3' 6") gauge. In fact, the law allowed only the construction of 1067 mm gauge railways, except for some 600 mm gauge feeder lines.
The first of the narrow gauge line was also built by the NIS, connecting Jakarta (then Batavia) and Bogor (then Buitenzorg). It was opened in January 31, 1873 after two years of construction. The line was quite profitable, but as it was isolated from the rest of the NIS lines in Central and East Java, it was later sold to the SS in 1913.
The state then began to get involved directly in the construction of railways, after a rather lengthy period of hesitation, since the Liberal government in the Netherlands would rather have private enterprise creating the railways. Anyway, state railways were considered necessary for strategic purposes. In May 16, 1878 the first line of the Staatsspoor- en Tramwegen in Nederlandsch-Indië (State Railway) was opened between Surabaya and Pasuruan. Three years later, construction was begun on a line from Bogor to Cicurug in West Java, with the intention to reach Cilacap, an important port in the southern coast of Java.
In 1884, the SS lines from the east reached Surakarta, on the NIS main line, and in 1888, the western line reached Cilacap. A continuous railway line was in place between Jakarta and Surabaya in 1894, with the completion of the last section, between Maos and Cibatu. The journey between the two points took three days, with the actual travel time being 32½ hours, because trains did not run at night, and the presence of different gauges required passengers and goods to be transferred at both Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Yet it was a great improvement over the horse-hauled carriages, which took up to two weeks for the trip.
The Samarang-Joana Stoomtram Maatschappij received the concession to build a light railway ("tramway") between Semarang and Juwana in 1881. It was the first of the 15 tramway companies in Java. The tramways were usually related to agricultural developments, especially sugar plantations and factories, tobacco and rubber plantations, and forestry. The lines also acted as feeder to the main lines. These tramways were built according to certain standards, allowing some exchange of rolling stock with the state railways, and some lines were indeed later upgraded to main-line railway standards.
Railway and tramway companies in Java, Madura and Sumatra
Name Location Construction
period Length
in 1939 Notes
Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Mij West Java, Eastern Central and East Java 1867-1924 855 km
Staatsspoor- en Tramwegen in Nederlandsch Indië Java 1878-1928 2761 km
West Sumatra 1891-1921 263 km
South Sumatra 1914-1932 661 km
Aceh 1876-1917 512 km
Deli Spoorweg Mij North Sumatra 1886-1937 554 km
Javasche Spoorweg Mij Tegal-Balapulang, Northwest Central Java 1885-1886 (24 km) To SCS
1895
Bataviasche Ooster Spoorweg Mij Jakarta-Krawang 1887-1898 (63 km) To SS 1898
Samarang-Joana Stoomtram Mij Semarang-Cepu, Northwest Central Java 1882-1923 417 km
Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Mij Semarang-Cirebon, Northern Central Java 1897-1914 373 km
Oost-Java Stoomtram Mij Surabaya area 1889-1924 36 km
Serajoedal Stoomtram Mij Maos-Wonosobo, Serayu River Valley 1896-1917 126 km
Poerwodadi-Goendih Stoomtram Mij Purwodadi-Gundih, Central Java 1894 (17 km) To SJS
1892
Pasoeroean Stoomtram Mij Pasuruan area, East Java 1896-1912 32 km
Probolinggo Stoomtram Mij Probolinggo area, East Java 1897-1912 41 km
Kediri Stoomtram Mij Kediri-Jombang, East Java 1897-1900 121 km
Malang Stoomtram Mij Malang area, East Java 1897-1908 85 km
Madoera Stoomtram Mij Bangkalan-Kalianget, Madura 1898-1913 213 km
Modjokerto Stoomtram Mij Mojokerto area, East Java 1898-1907 78 km
Babat-Djombang Stoomtram Mij Babat-Jombang, East Java 1899-1902 (71 km) To SS
1916
Solosche Tramweg Mij Solo-Boyolali, Central Java 1908-1911 (27 km) To NIS
1914
Sumatra had its first railway by 1876, a 4 km line between the port of Ule Lhee and Banda Aceh (then Koetaradja), built for military purposes. This line used the 1067 mm gauge. As the Aceh War raged on, the lines were expanded (and suffered from sabotage attempts) along with the Dutch military advances.
The first line of economic significance in Sumatra was laid by the Deli Spoorweg Maatschappij in 1886, between Labuhan (the erstwhile port) and Medan. This line served the fertile Deli region, and later served Besitang, Tanjungbalai, Rantau Prapat and Pematang Siantar. The last section of the line to Rantau Prapat was completed in 1937.
The Aceh line was later regauged to 750 mm (2' 5½"), and was completed to Besitang, 520 km southeast of Banda Aceh, in 1917, where a junction was made with the DSM line from Medan. The Atjeh Staatsstoomtram was transferred from the military to the SS in January 1, 1916. Even then, the situation in Aceh was not exactly peaceful, and the line kept its military importance up to the end of Dutch rule – even into independence days!
The government constructed a line in the Minangkabau region in West Sumatra between 1891 and 1894, between Teluk Bayur and the coal mine at Sawah Lunto. The 158 km-long line had to clear the Bukit Barisan range, climbing up to 773 m, and requiring a 43 km-long rack section between Kayutanam and Batu Tabal. It was the only rack line of a significant length in Indonesia. The line also went to Bukittinggi (then Fort de Kock) and Payakumbuh, both relatively important regional centers.
In the southern part of Sumatra, the government constructed a railway line from Panjang (then Oosthaven, the ferry port for Java) to Kertapati (across the River Musi from Palembang), and to Lubuklinggau, serving also the coal mine at Tanjung Enim. The construction began in 1914 and was completed in 1932.
The only public railway in Indonesia outside Java, Madura and Sumatra was opened in July 1922 in South Celebes. The line went from Ujung Pandang to Takalar, a distance of 47 km. It was closed in 1930 due to lack of traffic.
The railway service improved gradually. By 1899, a third rail was installed on the standard gauge line between Yogyakarta and Surakarta, although through passenger trains only began operating in February 1, 1905. The opening of the new line through the Priangan mountains in May 2, 1906 allowed the introduction of a much faster passenger service between Jakarta and Surabaya, requiring only 23 hours of travel time, but the actual journey still took two days.
In December 31, 1912, the law allowing the construction of the Cirebon-Kroya line was passed. The First World War stagnated the construction, but it was completed and opened in January 1, 1917. This line allowed trains to avoid the long, heavily graded (2.5%) original line through Bandung, and shortened the distance between Jakarta and Surabaya by 44 km. In 1918, the banning of running trains at night was lifted. The passenger train from Jakarta to Surabaya then took 17 hours.
The Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Maatschappij, a tramway stretching along the north Central Java coast, was an important one: it served 27 sugar mills. Beginning in 1914, its main line was improved to higher standards, allowing greater speeds and heavier trains. It became a significant partner to the SS in the Jakarta-Semarang passenger trains.
The fiftieth anniversary of the SS in 1925 was marked by the inauguration of an electric line connecting Bogor to Jakarta and its suburbs. The electrification was at 1500 volts DC.
In May 1, 1929, a 1067 mm line was completed between Yogyakarta and Surakarta, finally allowing much faster schedules between Jakarta and Surabaya. The best time was cut to 13½ hours, and then gradually to 11 hours and 27 minutes, in 1939. The train, Eendaagsche-Expres, had an average speed of 71.7 km/h on the Surabaya-Jakarta run.
Later, in November 1, 1936, another express service was introduced: the Nacht-Expres (Night Express). It was slower (between 21.00 and 05.00, the speed was limited to 60 km/h) than its daytime counterpart, but was more comfortable, for the passengers would not be affected by the tropical sun heat.
Railway map of Java, circa 1930
The greatest extent of the railway system in Java (click for full size map).
The Great Depression came in 1929, and the economic difficulties that resulted caused the cancellation of several projected extensions, for example, a railway line connecting the Southern and Western Sumatran SS lines to the DSM line, a line in West Borneo from Pontianak to Ketapang, and another in South Borneo, and a line in North Celebes. A number of unprofitable lines were closed, including the Tulungagung-Tugu and Jatibarang-Karangampel lines (both closed in 1932), Warungdowo-Purwosari and Warungdowo-Ngempit lines (1933), Tanahmerah-Kebanyar (1936) and Pamekasan-Kalianget (1937).
Plans to renew the locomotives of the railways were also affected. In 1931, only the SJS bought new locomotives, which became the last order by any of the Indonesian railways until after the Second World War. The SS, facing competition from autobuses and aeroplanes, but unable to buy new locomotives, rebuilt many freight locomotives, enabling them to run at higher speeds, resulting in faster schedules.
Generally, on the SS in the 1930s, passenger train speeds and frequencies were raised. As an example, the Jakarta-Bandung expresses numbered only two in 1934, taking 3 hours and 40 minutes. In November 1, 1934, the frequency was doubled, and the timing became 2 hours and 45 minutes, later to be cut down further to 2 hours and 30 minutes. The trains were commonly known as the Vlugge Vier (The Four Fast [Trains]).
Vlugge Vier schedules (1934)
Tandjong Priok
Batavia-Weltevreden
Bandoeng
06.45
09.36 09.26
10.02
12.50
13.32
16.20
16.00
18.54
Bandoeng
Batavia-Weltevreden
Tandjong Priok 06.00
08.45
09.12 10.05
12.51
13.35
16.20
16.03
18.54
Compare to present-day Jakarta-Bandung schedules.
Not only on the SS in Java, but also in South Sumatra there was an increase in speed limits, allowing a maximum of 75 km/h on the South Sumatran main line (in 1940), and also 50 km/h on some lines in West Sumatra. It was also in this period that the SCS upgraded its line to a maximum of 75 km/h, resulting in faster express schedules between Jakarta and Semarang.
It might be interesting to note that the fastest speed in the SS days was not reached by a 1000 class 4-cylinder compound, but instead by an older 700 class. In fact, the 1000 class (“duizendjes”) was considered a failure, and had the Depression not intervened, the class would have been rebuilt into 2-cylinder simples.
The Second World War broke out in September 1939, affecting the railways once again. NIS' plans to obtain several diesel-electric railcars from Beijnes and high speed streamlined standard gauge steam locomotives from Werkspoor were cancelled, because The Netherlands was occupied by Germany. For strategic purposes, the NIS standard gauge line from Solo to Gundih was fitted with a third rail, allowing narrow gauge trains to travel from Semarang to Solo via Gambringan.
Japan invaded Netherlands East Indies in 1942, and occupied it, taking two weeks to do so. The occupation resulted in the unification of all railways in Java under the military administration, known as Rikuyu Kyoku. The system was then handed over to a Japanese civilian administration, but were later administered by the military again in the latter part of the war. The Sumatran lines were similarly administered by the military occupiers, geographically separated into three systems: Kita Sumatora Tetsudo (North Sumatra including Aceh), Seibu Sumatora Tetsudo (West Sumatra) and Nanbu Sumatora Tetsudo (South Sumatra).
Under Japanese occupation, further lines were pulled up, including the whole standard gauge line, which was regauged to 1067 mm. In March 1943 the last standard gauge line was converted, leaving only one small standard gauge harbor line in Semarang. Many less important tramways were removed. A number of rolling stock were sent to other Japanese-occupied territories (Manchuria, Burma, Malaya, Siam and Indochina). Although none of the standard-gauge locomotives were taken elsewhere (many survived rusting in Yogyakarta works to the 1970’s), almost 40 1067 mm gauge locomotives were sent abroad. Of these, some of the former NIS 381-400 series (renumbered into the C52 class) were returned later, but were scrapped immediately as they have been regauged to metre gauge.
It was during the Japanese occupation that the worst railway incident in Indonesia occurred. On Christmas Day 1944, 200 were killed and 250 were injured when a train lost its brakes and ran away in the Anai valley in West Sumatra.
Many prisoners of war and impressed locals (commonly known as romushas) were forced to build new lines in Japanese-occupied territories, those in Indonesia being the Saketi-Bayah (in Banten, West Java) and Muaro-Pakanbaru (in Sumatra) lines. The latter line was only completed when the Japanese almost capitulated, and was therefore never used. The locomotives, many of which were already old and worn out, were further worn due to lack of maintenance and spare parts. Many romushas and railway employees were sent abroad to “help” the railway operations in Siam and Burma, and the majority never returned.
Indonesia declared independence in August 17, 1945, and in September 28, 1945, the Japanese railway administration was forced to hand over the railway to Indonesian freedom fighters, a day celebrated as Hari Kereta Api. The railway lines in Java was administered as Djawatan Kereta Api Repoeblik Indonesia, and those in South and West Sumatra Kereta Api Negara Repoeblik Indonesia. In North Sumatra it was Kereta Api Soematera Oetara Negara Repoeblik Indonesia. When the Dutch returned to Indonesia, they created the Staatsspoorwegen/Verenigd Spoorwegbedrijf (SS/VS) as a temporary administration, starting on January 1, 1946. It managed all public railway lines in Java, except the Jakarta tramway lines, and lines in South and West Sumatra.
Many battles between Indonesian freedom fighters and Dutch soldiers occurred over the railway, in fact, the lines often became the demarcation line between Dutch-held and Republic-held areas. The railway and railway workers did many heroic acts. In February 3, 1946, a special train including two inspection cars (saloons) evacuated President Soekarno, Vice President Mohammad Hatta and their entourage from Jakarta, which was becoming unsafe, to Yogyakarta. Trains were also used to smuggle firearms and transport freedom fighters. On the other hand, the Dutch also used trains to transport prisoners of war in atrocious conditions, sometimes resulting in fatalities, such as the incident on November 23, 1947, in which 46 of 100 prisoners were killed when they were pressed into three closed goods cars and transported without food or drink for 13 hours.
While the struggle raged on, the railway service was kept. Passenger trains were ran between significant cities and towns of the Republic (Cisurupan, the HQ of the DKARI; Yogyakarta, capital of the republic; Malang and others), and some of the lines removed by the Japanese were restored, such as between Kutoarjo and Purworejo. The SS/VS also did the same, running trains in the Dutch zone of control.
As the War for Independence raged on, most railway lines were controlled by the Dutch. The SS/VS did cooperate with the DKARI on the Jakarta-Tangerang line and several other lines, but in general, there was an atmosphere of war. Sabotages on VS lines were almost daily occurrence.
After Indonesia's full independence in 1950, the railway was at an appalling state. Ten years of neglect and war has resulted in destruction or damage to the rolling stock, trackage and other structures. The railway was rebuilt: 100 general purpose steam locomotives were ordered, tracks torn up during the troubles were relaid, new structures were built replacing those destroyed in the "scorched-earth" moves in the war, and new rolling stock were ordered.
The D52 class was actually ordered by the SS/VS, but was delivered to the Indonesian DKA. It might be noted that the former railway and tramway companies retain their paper existence, some up to the 1970s. The DKA owned the assets of the former SS, but had to pay for the use of the private railway’s assets.
The early-independence years were not without its share of troubles. Rebellions flared up in several areas, and the railway was inevitably affected. As an example, DI/TII rebels in West Java sometimes mined trains or loosened track spikes, causing derailments, sometimes with loss of life, such as when train no. 8306 was attacked between Warungbandrek and Malangbong in February 2, 1953. Other examples were when Cangkring station, near Cirebon, was burned down in August 23, 1951. Trains passing through rebel-infested areas were piloted by an armoured car, and the train itself was to push an armoured car and several flatcars weighed with tracks, to detonate any present mines (so the mines did not damage the train). The armoured car itself was a relic of the War of Independence, built by the Dutch for the same purposes.
A train in rebel-infested area near Tasikmalaya. Note the armored cars ahead.
The 1950s and 1960s were "survival years" in the words of the Indonesian Railway's official historian. The railway required subsidies to keep operations, many lines could not be run at a profit, obtaining sufficient spare parts for locomotives was a major problem and condition of the trackage was deplorable.
But those years were not totally wasted. Dieselisation came in 1953, in the form of 27 Co-2-Co locomotives from the United States, and between 1957-1967, around 250 diesel locomotives went into service, displacing steam from most main line and long distance passenger trains. New passenger stock were also introduced in the same period, although these were limited for main line trains, and older equipment remained in use for the lesser trains. New vacuum brake-equipped freight wagons were also obtained, for the overnight fast freight service between Jakarta and Surabaya.
In 1963, all public railways in Indonesia were unified under a new administration, Perusahaan Negara Kereta Api. Previously, the Deli system in North Sumatra was separately administered after its nationalization in 1958. Further administrational changes occurred in 1973, when the PNKA was renamed PJKA (Perusahaan Jawatan Kereta Api).
The "survival years" saw the railway service generally worsening. The political turmoil in Indonesia in the mid-1960’s resulted in serious problems, as many railway workers were members of the communist-affiliated union, and were purged in the aftermath of the failed coup d’etat. There was also the aphocryphal tale of railway workers sawing off the driving rods of a West German-built diesel, for being Western. However, this might be an urban legend.
In the early 1970s, however, efforts were made to increase the speed of the prestigious Jakarta-Bandung expresses, back to 2 hours and 30 minutes, as it was in the late 1930s, from more than 3 hours. It succeeded, but the high track maintenance costs caused the speed to be reduced again.
Also in the 1970s, ex-tramway lines began to be abandoned, as they were no longer economically viable: not enough paying passengers (trains were always loaded to capacity and more, though). The victims included the whole Aceh and Madura systems and most branch lines in Java. Presently, the Purwosari-Wonogiri line (ex-NIS) is the only proper tramway (it runs through the city center alongside the main street) still in operation. All other tramway lines have been removed. As the lines were removed, the steam locomotives serving on those lines were also retired, a process completed by the mid-1980s. Or perhaps, it was the run-down of the rolling stock which resulted in the abandonment of the railway lines.
Even in the early 1970s, many steam locomotives were already disused. The governor of Central Java, Soepardjo Roestam, promoted a locomotive museum in Ambarawa, in the station area. Later on, as all steam locomotives were retired, many remaining steam locomotive were preserved in another museum in Jakarta. Many others were also preserved individually elsewhere. More than sixty steam locomotives are preserved now.
The dieselisation and abandonment of most unprofitable lines improved PJKA's financial position, but it continued to require subsidies from the government. Also, it did not try creating new sources of income, the most obvious being the lack of launching of new trains.
In 1991, PJKA was reformed into Perumka (Perusahaan Umum Kereta Api). It was intended that the Perumka would begin to cover its costs, by "cross-subsidy": launching new, comfortable and fast trains with higher fares to subsidize the low fares of economy class trains, whose fares cover only 70% of the running costs.
The new management, led by Soemino Ekosapoetro, was successful. In 1994, Perumka made profits of about 3.88 billion rupiahs (then about 8 million US dollars), the first ever profit that a post-independence Indonesian railway made. In 1997, Perumka's profits reached 23.2 billion rupiahs.
In August 10, 1995, after several years of upgrading track to enable higher speeds, coinciding with the Golden Jubilee of Indonesia's independence, the Perumka launched the first two of the Argo trains. These trains were extra-fare, all executive class, high speed passenger trains. These trains do not only bring great profits to the railway, but also create a new image: previously, trains were thought as "dirty, slow, uncomfortable" mode of transportation, unsuitable to the growing middle-class in the Indonesian society.
The Argo Bromo Anggrek at Semarang Tawang station.
In Java, passenger trains were much more important than freight trains. But in South Sumatra, the Bukit Asam coal mine in Tanjung Enim is an important customer of railway services: to haul the mined coal to the port of Tarahan. In West Sumatra, the Ombilin coal mine also uses the railway's service to carry coal to the Indarung cement factory in Padang.
The economic crisis which hit Indonesia in mid-1997 was somewhat comparable to the Great Depression in 1939: It resulted in both difficulties and opportunities. The fall of the rupiah against the US dollar resulted in the reduction of new locomotive orders, reduction of profits and increased maintenance expenses. Express passenger speeds were reduced again, although the reduction was insignificant.
The opportunity came in the form of increasing demand for passenger trains: airplane fares, calculated in US dollars, became too expensive, and the customers, especially the middle class, who have always used airplanes, began to look at trains as an alternative. The Perumka responded by launching new passenger trains, many of them executive class-only or executive and business class trains, such as the Dwipangga, Mahesa and Sancaka.
Perumka's management was further reformed in June 1, 1999, when it was renamed PT (Persero) Kereta Api Indonesia. However, in the recent years the Indonesian Railway has faced tough challenges. The continuing economic crisis has resulted in a severe maintenance backlog for the rolling stock and trackwork, and many trains were running in less-than-top condition, or not running at all.
In the recent years the Indonesian Railway has faced tough challenges. The railway's safety record in the last years is not one to be proud of, its passengers, especially commuters, demand greater comfort and reliability, and the economic constraints has only made the situation more difficult. However, the Indonesian Railway has succeeded to survive, and is certain to prosper at a future time.
Sources:
Jan de Bruin, Het Indische spoor in oorlogstijd: de spoor- en tramwegmaatschappijen in Nederlands-Indië in de vuurlinie, 1873-1949
A.E. Durrant, Lokomotip Uap
A.E. Durrant, PNKA Power Parade
H. de Jong, De Locomotieven van Werkspoor
Michiel van Ballegoijen de Jong, Spoorwegstations op Java
Ir. Krijthe, De 'Bergkoningin' en de spoorwegen in Nederlands-Indië 1862-1949
J.J.G. Oegema, De Stoomtractie op Java en Sumatra
Sejarah Perkeretaapian Indonesia, Volumes 1 and 2
In June 17, 1864, Governor-General Mr. L. A. J. W. Baron Sloet van Beele broke ground for the first railway line in Java, which was then part of Netherlands East Indies. The line belonged to the Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (Netherlands East Indies Railway Company), and the first line in operation was between Semarang and Tanggung, opened in August 10, 1867.
The line was then unprofitable, so the company turned to the government for help in completing the rest of the 166 km long main line to Yogyakarta through the Vorstenlanden. The great cost involved in the building was partly caused by the decision to build the tracks at the standard gauge (1435 mm/4' 8½"). This also resulted in the selection of a narrower gauge for most of the later construction, after a 1869 report by J. A. Kool and N. H. Henket showed the economy and suitability of 1067 mm (3' 6") gauge. In fact, the law allowed only the construction of 1067 mm gauge railways, except for some 600 mm gauge feeder lines.
The first of the narrow gauge line was also built by the NIS, connecting Jakarta (then Batavia) and Bogor (then Buitenzorg). It was opened in January 31, 1873 after two years of construction. The line was quite profitable, but as it was isolated from the rest of the NIS lines in Central and East Java, it was later sold to the SS in 1913.
The state then began to get involved directly in the construction of railways, after a rather lengthy period of hesitation, since the Liberal government in the Netherlands would rather have private enterprise creating the railways. Anyway, state railways were considered necessary for strategic purposes. In May 16, 1878 the first line of the Staatsspoor- en Tramwegen in Nederlandsch-Indië (State Railway) was opened between Surabaya and Pasuruan. Three years later, construction was begun on a line from Bogor to Cicurug in West Java, with the intention to reach Cilacap, an important port in the southern coast of Java.
In 1884, the SS lines from the east reached Surakarta, on the NIS main line, and in 1888, the western line reached Cilacap. A continuous railway line was in place between Jakarta and Surabaya in 1894, with the completion of the last section, between Maos and Cibatu. The journey between the two points took three days, with the actual travel time being 32½ hours, because trains did not run at night, and the presence of different gauges required passengers and goods to be transferred at both Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Yet it was a great improvement over the horse-hauled carriages, which took up to two weeks for the trip.
The Samarang-Joana Stoomtram Maatschappij received the concession to build a light railway ("tramway") between Semarang and Juwana in 1881. It was the first of the 15 tramway companies in Java. The tramways were usually related to agricultural developments, especially sugar plantations and factories, tobacco and rubber plantations, and forestry. The lines also acted as feeder to the main lines. These tramways were built according to certain standards, allowing some exchange of rolling stock with the state railways, and some lines were indeed later upgraded to main-line railway standards.
Railway and tramway companies in Java, Madura and Sumatra
Name Location Construction
period Length
in 1939 Notes
Nederlandsch-Indische Spoorweg Mij West Java, Eastern Central and East Java 1867-1924 855 km
Staatsspoor- en Tramwegen in Nederlandsch Indië Java 1878-1928 2761 km
West Sumatra 1891-1921 263 km
South Sumatra 1914-1932 661 km
Aceh 1876-1917 512 km
Deli Spoorweg Mij North Sumatra 1886-1937 554 km
Javasche Spoorweg Mij Tegal-Balapulang, Northwest Central Java 1885-1886 (24 km) To SCS
1895
Bataviasche Ooster Spoorweg Mij Jakarta-Krawang 1887-1898 (63 km) To SS 1898
Samarang-Joana Stoomtram Mij Semarang-Cepu, Northwest Central Java 1882-1923 417 km
Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Mij Semarang-Cirebon, Northern Central Java 1897-1914 373 km
Oost-Java Stoomtram Mij Surabaya area 1889-1924 36 km
Serajoedal Stoomtram Mij Maos-Wonosobo, Serayu River Valley 1896-1917 126 km
Poerwodadi-Goendih Stoomtram Mij Purwodadi-Gundih, Central Java 1894 (17 km) To SJS
1892
Pasoeroean Stoomtram Mij Pasuruan area, East Java 1896-1912 32 km
Probolinggo Stoomtram Mij Probolinggo area, East Java 1897-1912 41 km
Kediri Stoomtram Mij Kediri-Jombang, East Java 1897-1900 121 km
Malang Stoomtram Mij Malang area, East Java 1897-1908 85 km
Madoera Stoomtram Mij Bangkalan-Kalianget, Madura 1898-1913 213 km
Modjokerto Stoomtram Mij Mojokerto area, East Java 1898-1907 78 km
Babat-Djombang Stoomtram Mij Babat-Jombang, East Java 1899-1902 (71 km) To SS
1916
Solosche Tramweg Mij Solo-Boyolali, Central Java 1908-1911 (27 km) To NIS
1914
Sumatra had its first railway by 1876, a 4 km line between the port of Ule Lhee and Banda Aceh (then Koetaradja), built for military purposes. This line used the 1067 mm gauge. As the Aceh War raged on, the lines were expanded (and suffered from sabotage attempts) along with the Dutch military advances.
The first line of economic significance in Sumatra was laid by the Deli Spoorweg Maatschappij in 1886, between Labuhan (the erstwhile port) and Medan. This line served the fertile Deli region, and later served Besitang, Tanjungbalai, Rantau Prapat and Pematang Siantar. The last section of the line to Rantau Prapat was completed in 1937.
The Aceh line was later regauged to 750 mm (2' 5½"), and was completed to Besitang, 520 km southeast of Banda Aceh, in 1917, where a junction was made with the DSM line from Medan. The Atjeh Staatsstoomtram was transferred from the military to the SS in January 1, 1916. Even then, the situation in Aceh was not exactly peaceful, and the line kept its military importance up to the end of Dutch rule – even into independence days!
The government constructed a line in the Minangkabau region in West Sumatra between 1891 and 1894, between Teluk Bayur and the coal mine at Sawah Lunto. The 158 km-long line had to clear the Bukit Barisan range, climbing up to 773 m, and requiring a 43 km-long rack section between Kayutanam and Batu Tabal. It was the only rack line of a significant length in Indonesia. The line also went to Bukittinggi (then Fort de Kock) and Payakumbuh, both relatively important regional centers.
In the southern part of Sumatra, the government constructed a railway line from Panjang (then Oosthaven, the ferry port for Java) to Kertapati (across the River Musi from Palembang), and to Lubuklinggau, serving also the coal mine at Tanjung Enim. The construction began in 1914 and was completed in 1932.
The only public railway in Indonesia outside Java, Madura and Sumatra was opened in July 1922 in South Celebes. The line went from Ujung Pandang to Takalar, a distance of 47 km. It was closed in 1930 due to lack of traffic.
The railway service improved gradually. By 1899, a third rail was installed on the standard gauge line between Yogyakarta and Surakarta, although through passenger trains only began operating in February 1, 1905. The opening of the new line through the Priangan mountains in May 2, 1906 allowed the introduction of a much faster passenger service between Jakarta and Surabaya, requiring only 23 hours of travel time, but the actual journey still took two days.
In December 31, 1912, the law allowing the construction of the Cirebon-Kroya line was passed. The First World War stagnated the construction, but it was completed and opened in January 1, 1917. This line allowed trains to avoid the long, heavily graded (2.5%) original line through Bandung, and shortened the distance between Jakarta and Surabaya by 44 km. In 1918, the banning of running trains at night was lifted. The passenger train from Jakarta to Surabaya then took 17 hours.
The Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Maatschappij, a tramway stretching along the north Central Java coast, was an important one: it served 27 sugar mills. Beginning in 1914, its main line was improved to higher standards, allowing greater speeds and heavier trains. It became a significant partner to the SS in the Jakarta-Semarang passenger trains.
The fiftieth anniversary of the SS in 1925 was marked by the inauguration of an electric line connecting Bogor to Jakarta and its suburbs. The electrification was at 1500 volts DC.
In May 1, 1929, a 1067 mm line was completed between Yogyakarta and Surakarta, finally allowing much faster schedules between Jakarta and Surabaya. The best time was cut to 13½ hours, and then gradually to 11 hours and 27 minutes, in 1939. The train, Eendaagsche-Expres, had an average speed of 71.7 km/h on the Surabaya-Jakarta run.
Later, in November 1, 1936, another express service was introduced: the Nacht-Expres (Night Express). It was slower (between 21.00 and 05.00, the speed was limited to 60 km/h) than its daytime counterpart, but was more comfortable, for the passengers would not be affected by the tropical sun heat.
Railway map of Java, circa 1930
The greatest extent of the railway system in Java (click for full size map).
The Great Depression came in 1929, and the economic difficulties that resulted caused the cancellation of several projected extensions, for example, a railway line connecting the Southern and Western Sumatran SS lines to the DSM line, a line in West Borneo from Pontianak to Ketapang, and another in South Borneo, and a line in North Celebes. A number of unprofitable lines were closed, including the Tulungagung-Tugu and Jatibarang-Karangampel lines (both closed in 1932), Warungdowo-Purwosari and Warungdowo-Ngempit lines (1933), Tanahmerah-Kebanyar (1936) and Pamekasan-Kalianget (1937).
Plans to renew the locomotives of the railways were also affected. In 1931, only the SJS bought new locomotives, which became the last order by any of the Indonesian railways until after the Second World War. The SS, facing competition from autobuses and aeroplanes, but unable to buy new locomotives, rebuilt many freight locomotives, enabling them to run at higher speeds, resulting in faster schedules.
Generally, on the SS in the 1930s, passenger train speeds and frequencies were raised. As an example, the Jakarta-Bandung expresses numbered only two in 1934, taking 3 hours and 40 minutes. In November 1, 1934, the frequency was doubled, and the timing became 2 hours and 45 minutes, later to be cut down further to 2 hours and 30 minutes. The trains were commonly known as the Vlugge Vier (The Four Fast [Trains]).
Vlugge Vier schedules (1934)
Tandjong Priok
Batavia-Weltevreden
Bandoeng
06.45
09.36 09.26
10.02
12.50
13.32
16.20
16.00
18.54
Bandoeng
Batavia-Weltevreden
Tandjong Priok 06.00
08.45
09.12 10.05
12.51
13.35
16.20
16.03
18.54
Compare to present-day Jakarta-Bandung schedules.
Not only on the SS in Java, but also in South Sumatra there was an increase in speed limits, allowing a maximum of 75 km/h on the South Sumatran main line (in 1940), and also 50 km/h on some lines in West Sumatra. It was also in this period that the SCS upgraded its line to a maximum of 75 km/h, resulting in faster express schedules between Jakarta and Semarang.
It might be interesting to note that the fastest speed in the SS days was not reached by a 1000 class 4-cylinder compound, but instead by an older 700 class. In fact, the 1000 class (“duizendjes”) was considered a failure, and had the Depression not intervened, the class would have been rebuilt into 2-cylinder simples.
The Second World War broke out in September 1939, affecting the railways once again. NIS' plans to obtain several diesel-electric railcars from Beijnes and high speed streamlined standard gauge steam locomotives from Werkspoor were cancelled, because The Netherlands was occupied by Germany. For strategic purposes, the NIS standard gauge line from Solo to Gundih was fitted with a third rail, allowing narrow gauge trains to travel from Semarang to Solo via Gambringan.
Japan invaded Netherlands East Indies in 1942, and occupied it, taking two weeks to do so. The occupation resulted in the unification of all railways in Java under the military administration, known as Rikuyu Kyoku. The system was then handed over to a Japanese civilian administration, but were later administered by the military again in the latter part of the war. The Sumatran lines were similarly administered by the military occupiers, geographically separated into three systems: Kita Sumatora Tetsudo (North Sumatra including Aceh), Seibu Sumatora Tetsudo (West Sumatra) and Nanbu Sumatora Tetsudo (South Sumatra).
Under Japanese occupation, further lines were pulled up, including the whole standard gauge line, which was regauged to 1067 mm. In March 1943 the last standard gauge line was converted, leaving only one small standard gauge harbor line in Semarang. Many less important tramways were removed. A number of rolling stock were sent to other Japanese-occupied territories (Manchuria, Burma, Malaya, Siam and Indochina). Although none of the standard-gauge locomotives were taken elsewhere (many survived rusting in Yogyakarta works to the 1970’s), almost 40 1067 mm gauge locomotives were sent abroad. Of these, some of the former NIS 381-400 series (renumbered into the C52 class) were returned later, but were scrapped immediately as they have been regauged to metre gauge.
It was during the Japanese occupation that the worst railway incident in Indonesia occurred. On Christmas Day 1944, 200 were killed and 250 were injured when a train lost its brakes and ran away in the Anai valley in West Sumatra.
Many prisoners of war and impressed locals (commonly known as romushas) were forced to build new lines in Japanese-occupied territories, those in Indonesia being the Saketi-Bayah (in Banten, West Java) and Muaro-Pakanbaru (in Sumatra) lines. The latter line was only completed when the Japanese almost capitulated, and was therefore never used. The locomotives, many of which were already old and worn out, were further worn due to lack of maintenance and spare parts. Many romushas and railway employees were sent abroad to “help” the railway operations in Siam and Burma, and the majority never returned.
Indonesia declared independence in August 17, 1945, and in September 28, 1945, the Japanese railway administration was forced to hand over the railway to Indonesian freedom fighters, a day celebrated as Hari Kereta Api. The railway lines in Java was administered as Djawatan Kereta Api Repoeblik Indonesia, and those in South and West Sumatra Kereta Api Negara Repoeblik Indonesia. In North Sumatra it was Kereta Api Soematera Oetara Negara Repoeblik Indonesia. When the Dutch returned to Indonesia, they created the Staatsspoorwegen/Verenigd Spoorwegbedrijf (SS/VS) as a temporary administration, starting on January 1, 1946. It managed all public railway lines in Java, except the Jakarta tramway lines, and lines in South and West Sumatra.
Many battles between Indonesian freedom fighters and Dutch soldiers occurred over the railway, in fact, the lines often became the demarcation line between Dutch-held and Republic-held areas. The railway and railway workers did many heroic acts. In February 3, 1946, a special train including two inspection cars (saloons) evacuated President Soekarno, Vice President Mohammad Hatta and their entourage from Jakarta, which was becoming unsafe, to Yogyakarta. Trains were also used to smuggle firearms and transport freedom fighters. On the other hand, the Dutch also used trains to transport prisoners of war in atrocious conditions, sometimes resulting in fatalities, such as the incident on November 23, 1947, in which 46 of 100 prisoners were killed when they were pressed into three closed goods cars and transported without food or drink for 13 hours.
While the struggle raged on, the railway service was kept. Passenger trains were ran between significant cities and towns of the Republic (Cisurupan, the HQ of the DKARI; Yogyakarta, capital of the republic; Malang and others), and some of the lines removed by the Japanese were restored, such as between Kutoarjo and Purworejo. The SS/VS also did the same, running trains in the Dutch zone of control.
As the War for Independence raged on, most railway lines were controlled by the Dutch. The SS/VS did cooperate with the DKARI on the Jakarta-Tangerang line and several other lines, but in general, there was an atmosphere of war. Sabotages on VS lines were almost daily occurrence.
After Indonesia's full independence in 1950, the railway was at an appalling state. Ten years of neglect and war has resulted in destruction or damage to the rolling stock, trackage and other structures. The railway was rebuilt: 100 general purpose steam locomotives were ordered, tracks torn up during the troubles were relaid, new structures were built replacing those destroyed in the "scorched-earth" moves in the war, and new rolling stock were ordered.
The D52 class was actually ordered by the SS/VS, but was delivered to the Indonesian DKA. It might be noted that the former railway and tramway companies retain their paper existence, some up to the 1970s. The DKA owned the assets of the former SS, but had to pay for the use of the private railway’s assets.
The early-independence years were not without its share of troubles. Rebellions flared up in several areas, and the railway was inevitably affected. As an example, DI/TII rebels in West Java sometimes mined trains or loosened track spikes, causing derailments, sometimes with loss of life, such as when train no. 8306 was attacked between Warungbandrek and Malangbong in February 2, 1953. Other examples were when Cangkring station, near Cirebon, was burned down in August 23, 1951. Trains passing through rebel-infested areas were piloted by an armoured car, and the train itself was to push an armoured car and several flatcars weighed with tracks, to detonate any present mines (so the mines did not damage the train). The armoured car itself was a relic of the War of Independence, built by the Dutch for the same purposes.
A train in rebel-infested area near Tasikmalaya. Note the armored cars ahead.
The 1950s and 1960s were "survival years" in the words of the Indonesian Railway's official historian. The railway required subsidies to keep operations, many lines could not be run at a profit, obtaining sufficient spare parts for locomotives was a major problem and condition of the trackage was deplorable.
But those years were not totally wasted. Dieselisation came in 1953, in the form of 27 Co-2-Co locomotives from the United States, and between 1957-1967, around 250 diesel locomotives went into service, displacing steam from most main line and long distance passenger trains. New passenger stock were also introduced in the same period, although these were limited for main line trains, and older equipment remained in use for the lesser trains. New vacuum brake-equipped freight wagons were also obtained, for the overnight fast freight service between Jakarta and Surabaya.
In 1963, all public railways in Indonesia were unified under a new administration, Perusahaan Negara Kereta Api. Previously, the Deli system in North Sumatra was separately administered after its nationalization in 1958. Further administrational changes occurred in 1973, when the PNKA was renamed PJKA (Perusahaan Jawatan Kereta Api).
The "survival years" saw the railway service generally worsening. The political turmoil in Indonesia in the mid-1960’s resulted in serious problems, as many railway workers were members of the communist-affiliated union, and were purged in the aftermath of the failed coup d’etat. There was also the aphocryphal tale of railway workers sawing off the driving rods of a West German-built diesel, for being Western. However, this might be an urban legend.
In the early 1970s, however, efforts were made to increase the speed of the prestigious Jakarta-Bandung expresses, back to 2 hours and 30 minutes, as it was in the late 1930s, from more than 3 hours. It succeeded, but the high track maintenance costs caused the speed to be reduced again.
Also in the 1970s, ex-tramway lines began to be abandoned, as they were no longer economically viable: not enough paying passengers (trains were always loaded to capacity and more, though). The victims included the whole Aceh and Madura systems and most branch lines in Java. Presently, the Purwosari-Wonogiri line (ex-NIS) is the only proper tramway (it runs through the city center alongside the main street) still in operation. All other tramway lines have been removed. As the lines were removed, the steam locomotives serving on those lines were also retired, a process completed by the mid-1980s. Or perhaps, it was the run-down of the rolling stock which resulted in the abandonment of the railway lines.
Even in the early 1970s, many steam locomotives were already disused. The governor of Central Java, Soepardjo Roestam, promoted a locomotive museum in Ambarawa, in the station area. Later on, as all steam locomotives were retired, many remaining steam locomotive were preserved in another museum in Jakarta. Many others were also preserved individually elsewhere. More than sixty steam locomotives are preserved now.
The dieselisation and abandonment of most unprofitable lines improved PJKA's financial position, but it continued to require subsidies from the government. Also, it did not try creating new sources of income, the most obvious being the lack of launching of new trains.
In 1991, PJKA was reformed into Perumka (Perusahaan Umum Kereta Api). It was intended that the Perumka would begin to cover its costs, by "cross-subsidy": launching new, comfortable and fast trains with higher fares to subsidize the low fares of economy class trains, whose fares cover only 70% of the running costs.
The new management, led by Soemino Ekosapoetro, was successful. In 1994, Perumka made profits of about 3.88 billion rupiahs (then about 8 million US dollars), the first ever profit that a post-independence Indonesian railway made. In 1997, Perumka's profits reached 23.2 billion rupiahs.
In August 10, 1995, after several years of upgrading track to enable higher speeds, coinciding with the Golden Jubilee of Indonesia's independence, the Perumka launched the first two of the Argo trains. These trains were extra-fare, all executive class, high speed passenger trains. These trains do not only bring great profits to the railway, but also create a new image: previously, trains were thought as "dirty, slow, uncomfortable" mode of transportation, unsuitable to the growing middle-class in the Indonesian society.
The Argo Bromo Anggrek at Semarang Tawang station.
In Java, passenger trains were much more important than freight trains. But in South Sumatra, the Bukit Asam coal mine in Tanjung Enim is an important customer of railway services: to haul the mined coal to the port of Tarahan. In West Sumatra, the Ombilin coal mine also uses the railway's service to carry coal to the Indarung cement factory in Padang.
The economic crisis which hit Indonesia in mid-1997 was somewhat comparable to the Great Depression in 1939: It resulted in both difficulties and opportunities. The fall of the rupiah against the US dollar resulted in the reduction of new locomotive orders, reduction of profits and increased maintenance expenses. Express passenger speeds were reduced again, although the reduction was insignificant.
The opportunity came in the form of increasing demand for passenger trains: airplane fares, calculated in US dollars, became too expensive, and the customers, especially the middle class, who have always used airplanes, began to look at trains as an alternative. The Perumka responded by launching new passenger trains, many of them executive class-only or executive and business class trains, such as the Dwipangga, Mahesa and Sancaka.
Perumka's management was further reformed in June 1, 1999, when it was renamed PT (Persero) Kereta Api Indonesia. However, in the recent years the Indonesian Railway has faced tough challenges. The continuing economic crisis has resulted in a severe maintenance backlog for the rolling stock and trackwork, and many trains were running in less-than-top condition, or not running at all.
In the recent years the Indonesian Railway has faced tough challenges. The railway's safety record in the last years is not one to be proud of, its passengers, especially commuters, demand greater comfort and reliability, and the economic constraints has only made the situation more difficult. However, the Indonesian Railway has succeeded to survive, and is certain to prosper at a future time.
Sources:
Jan de Bruin, Het Indische spoor in oorlogstijd: de spoor- en tramwegmaatschappijen in Nederlands-Indië in de vuurlinie, 1873-1949
A.E. Durrant, Lokomotip Uap
A.E. Durrant, PNKA Power Parade
H. de Jong, De Locomotieven van Werkspoor
Michiel van Ballegoijen de Jong, Spoorwegstations op Java
Ir. Krijthe, De 'Bergkoningin' en de spoorwegen in Nederlands-Indië 1862-1949
J.J.G. Oegema, De Stoomtractie op Java en Sumatra
Sejarah Perkeretaapian Indonesia, Volumes 1 and 2
Kamis, 07 Oktober 2010
Topologi Jaringan
Topologi Jaringan
Apa itu Topologi Jaringan?
Topologi pada dasarnya adalah peta dari sebuah jaringan. Topologi jaringan terbagi lagi menjadi dua, yaitu topologi secara fisik (physical topology) dan topologi secara logika (logical topology). Topologi secara fisik menjelaskan bagaimana susunan dari kabel dan komputer dan lokasi dari semua komponen jaringan. Sedangkan topologi secara logika menetapkan bagaimana informasi atau aliran data dalam jaringan.
Kabel atau koneksi dalam physical topology seringkali mengenai media jaringan (atau media fisik). Memilih bagaimana komputer-komputer akan dihubungkan dalam suatu jaringan sangat penting (terlebih lagi dalam jaringan perusahaan). Pemilihan topologi yang salah akan membuat sangat sulit untuk membenarkannya, karena hal tersebut tentu saja merugikan. Sangat penting untuk memilih bagaimana topologi yang tepat untuk jaringan yang akan digunakan. Biasanya suatu organisasi atau perusahaan merubah susunan fisik dan media fisik jaringannya sekali dalam sepuluh tahun. Jadi sangat penting untuk memilih konfigurasi yang tepat.
Dalam tulisan ini akan dijelaskan topologi yang paling umum digunakan:
• Bus
• Star (Bintang)
• Ring
• Mesh
1. Topologi Bus
Topologi bus seringkali digunakan ketika jaringannya berukuran kecil, simpel, atau bersifat sementara. Sangat sederhana dalam instalasi, dan ekonomis dalam hal biaya.
Bagaimana Jaringan Bus Bekerja
Tipikal dari jaringan bus, kabel hanya satu atau lebih wires, tanpa adanya alat tambahan yang menguatkan sinyal atau melewatkannya terus dari komputer ke komputer. Topologi bus merupakan topologi yang pasif. Ketika satu komputer mengirim sinyal up (dan down), semua komputer dalam jaringan menerima informasi, tetapi hanya satu komputer yang menyetujui informasi tersebut (komputer yang memiliki alamat yang sama dengan alamat yang menjadi tujuan dalam pesan). Sedangkan komputer yang lainnya akan menghiraukan pesan tersebut. Topologi dari jaringan bus menggunakan broadcast channel yang berarti setiap komputer atau peralatan yang terhubung dapat mendengar setiap pengiriman dan semuanya memiliki prioritas yang sama dalam menggunakan jaringan untuk mengirimkan data. Analoginya sebagai berikut bila berada disatu tempat dimana Anda berkumpul dengan teman-teman Anda, lalu Anda mencoba memanggil teman Anda yang bernama Joe, pasti teman Anda (yang bernama Joe) akan mendengar dan menghampiri Anda, dan yang lain tentu akan menghiraukannya.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Bus
Terdapat beberapa keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi bus:
• Bus adalah topologi yang sederhana, dapat diandalkan untuk penggunaan pada jaringan yang kecil, mudah untuk digunakan, dan mudah untuk dimengerti.
• Bus hanya membutuhkan kabel dalam jumlah yang sedikit untuk menghubungkan komputer-komputer atau peralatan-peralatan yang lain dan oleh karena itu biayanya lebih murah dibandingkan dengan susunan pengkabelan yang lain.
• Cukup mudah apabila kita ingin memperluas jaringan pada topologi bus. Dua kabel dapat digabungkan pada kabel yang lebih panjang dengan menggunakan BNC barrel connector, membuat kabel menjadi lebih panjang dan membolehkan komputer-komputer lain untuk untuk dihubungkan ke dalam jaringan.
• Sebuah repeater dapat digunakan untuk memperluas jaringan, repeater digunakan untuk menguatkan sinyal sehingga dapat menempuh jarak yang lebih jauh.
Kerugian dari penggunaan Topologi Bus
Kerugian jika menggunakan bus:
• Traffic (lalu lintas) yang padat akan sangat memperlambat bus. Karena setiap komputer dapat mengirim setiap waktu dan komputer-komputer yang ada pada jaringan bus tidak saling berkoordinasi satu sama lain dalam menyediakan waktu untuk mengirim. Dalam jaringan bus sejumlah komputer akan menghabiskan sejumlah bandwidth (kapasitas untuk mengirimkan informasi) dengan komputer-komputer yang saling mengganggu satu sama lain daripada berkomunikasi. Masalah tersebut akan bertambah parah jika jumlah komputer yang dihubungkan ke dalam jaringan bertambah banyak.
• Setiap barrel connector yang digunakan sebagai penghubung memperlemah sinyal elektrik yang dikirimkan, dan kebanyakan akan menghalangi sinyal untuk dapat diterima dengan benar.
• Sangat sulit untuk melakukan troubleshoot pada bus. Apabila ada kabel yang putus atau komputer yang tidak berfungsi dimanapun antara dua komputer akan menyebabkan komputer-komputer tersebut tidak dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Putusnya kabel atau lepasnya konektor akan menyebabkan pemantulan dan membuat jaringan akan mati dan berhenti untuk beraktivitas. Untuk mengetahui putusnya kabel atau tidak, digunakan alat yang bernama Time Domain Reflector yang juga disebut cable tester.
• Lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan topologi yang lain.
2. Topologi Bintang (Star)
Dalam topologi star, semua kabel dihubungkan dari komputer-komputer ke lokasi pusat (central location), dimana semuanya terhubung ke suatu alat yang dinamakan hub.
Topologi star digunakan dalam jaringan yang padat, ketika endpoint dapat dicapai langsung dari lokasi pusat, kebutuhan untuk perluasan jaringan, dan membutuhkan kehandalan yang tinggi. Topologi ini merupakan susunan yang menggunakan lebih banyak kabel daripada bus dan karena semua komputer dan perangkat terhubung ke central point. Jadi bila ada salah satu komputer atau perangkat yang mengalami kerusakan maka tidak akan mempengaruhi yang lainnya (jaringan).
Bagaimana Jaringan Star Bekerja
Setiap komputer dalam jaringan bintang berkomunikasi dengan central hub yang mengirimkan kembali pesan ke semua komputer (dalam broadcast star network) atau hanya ke komputer yang dituju (dalam switched star network). Hub dalam broadcast star network dapat menjadi aktif ataupun pasif. Active hub memperbaharui sinyal elektrik yang diterima dan mengirimkannya ke semua komputer yang terhubung ke hub. Hub tipe tersebut sering disebut juga dengan multiport repeater. Jika kita menggunakan hub memiliki 32 port, dengan seluruh port terisi, maka collision akan sering terjadi yang akan mengakibatkan kinerja jaringan menurun. Untuk menghindari hal tersebut kita bisa menggunakan switch yang memiliki kemampuan untuk menentukan jalur tujuan data. Active hub dan switch membutuhkan tenaga listrik untuk menjalankannya. Pasisive hub, seperti wiring panel atau blok punch-down, hanya berfungsi sebagai titik koneksi (connection point) dan tidak melakukan penguatan sinyal atau memperbaharui sinyal. Passive hub tidak membutuhkan tenaga listrik untuk menjalankannya.
3. Jaringan Bintang Hybrid (Hybrid Star Network)
Kita dapat menggunakan beberapa tipe kabel untuk mengimplementasikan jaringan star. Hybrid hub dapat digunakan untuk mengakomodasi beberapa tipe kabel dalam satu jaringan bintang.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Star
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi star:
• Cukup mudah untuk mengubah dan menambah komputer ke dalam jaringan yang menggunakan topologi star tanpa mengganggu aktvitas jaringan yang sedang berlangsung. Kita hanya tinggal menambah kabel baru dari komputer kita ke lokasi pusat (central location) dan pasangkan kabel tersebut ke hub. Bila kapasitas dari hub pusat sudah melebihi, maka kita tinggal mengganti hub tersebut dengan hub yang memiliki jumlah port yang lebih banyak.
• Pusat dari jaringan star merupakan tempat yang baik untuk menentukan diagnosa kesalahan yang terjadi dalam jaringan. Intelligent hub merupakan hub yang dilengkapi dengan microprocessors yang selain memiliki fitur sebagai tambahan untuk mengulang sinyal jaringan juga melakukan monitor yang terpusat dan manajemen terhadap jaringan.
• Apabila satu komputer yang mengalami kerusakan dalam jaringan maka komputer tersebut tidak akan membuat mati seluruh jaringan star. Hub dapat mendeteksi
kesalahan dalam jaringan dan memisahkan komputer yang rusak tersebut dari jaringan dan memperkenankan jaringan untuk beroperasi kembali.
• Kita dapat menggunakan beberapa tipe kabel di dalam jaringan yang sama dengan hub yang dapat mengakomodasi tipe kabel yang berbeda.
Kekurangan dari penggunaan Topologi Star
Topologi star mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Memiliki satu titik kesalahan, terletak pada hub. Jika hub pusat mengalami kegagalan, maka seluruh jaringan akan gagal untuk beroperasi.
• Memerlukan alat pada central point untuk mem-broadcast ulang atau pergantian traffic jaringan (switch network traffic).
• Membutuhkan lebih banyak kabel karena semua kabel jaringan harus ditarik ke satu central point, jadi lebih banyak membutuhkan lebih banyak kabel daripada topologi jaringan yang lain.
4. Topologi Cincin (Ring)
Penempatan kabel yang digunakan dalam ring menggunakan desain yang sederhana. Pada topologi ring, setiap komputer terhubung ke komputer selanjutnya, dengan komputer terakhir terhubung ke komputer yang pertama. Tetapi sayangnya, jika akan dilakukan penambahan atau pengurangan komputer dalam jaringan tentu saja akan mengganggu keseluruhan jaringan. 6
Topologi ring digunakan dalam jaringan yang memiliki performance tinggi, jaringan yang membutuhkan bandwidth untuk fitur yang time-sensitive seperti video dan audio, atau ketika performance dibutuhkan saat komputer yang terhubung ke jaringan dalam jumlah yang banyak.
Bagaimana Jaringan Ring Bekerja
Setiap komputer terhubung ke komputer selanjutnya dalam ring, dan setiap komputer mengirim apa yang diterima dari komputer sebelumnya. Pesan-pesan mengalir melalui ring dalam satu arah. Setiap komputer yang mengirimkan apa yang diterimanya, ring adalah jaringan yang aktif. Tidak ada akhir pada ring.
Beberapa jaringan ring melakukan token passing. Pesan singkat yang disebut dengan token dijalankan melalui ring sampai sebuah komputer menginginkan untuk mengirim informasi ke komputer yang lain. Komputer tersebut lalu mengubah token tersebut, dengan menambahkan alamatnya dan menambah data, dan mengirimnya melalui ring. Lalu setiap komputer secara berurutan akan menerima token tersebut dan mengirimkan informasi ke komputer selanjutnya sampai komputer dengan alamat yang dituju dicapai atau token kembali ke komputer pengirim (asal pengirim pesan). Komputer penerima akan membalas pesan ke asal pengirim pesan tadi mengindikasikan bahwa pesan sudah diterima. Lalu asal pengirim pesan akan membuat token yang lain dan menaruhnya di dalam jaringan, dan token tersebut akan terus berputar sampai ada komputer lain yang menangkap token tersebut dan siap untuk memulai pengiriman.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Ring
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi ring:
• Tidak ada komputer yang memonopoli jaringan, karena setiap komputer mempunyai hak akses yang sama terhadap token.
• Data mengalir dalam satu arah sehingga terjadinya collision dapat dihindarkan.
Kekurangan dari penggunaan Topologi Ring
Topologi ring mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Apabila ada satu komputer dalam ring yang gagal berfungsi, maka akan mempengaruhi keseluruhan jaringan.
• Sulit untuk mengatasi kerusakan di jaringan yang menggunakan topologi ring.
• Menambah atau mengurangi komputer akan mengacaukan jaringan.
• Sulit untuk melakukan konfigurasi ulang.
5. Topologi Mesh
Di antara topologi yang lain topologi mesh memiliki hubungan yang berlebihan antara peralatan-peralatan yang ada. Jadi susunannya, setiap peralatan yang ada didalam jaringan saling terhubung satu sama lain. Dapat dibayangkan jika jumlah peralatan yang terhubung sangat banyak, tentunya ini akan sangat sulit sekali untuk dikendalikan dibandingkan hanya sedikit peralatan saja yang terhubung.
Instalasi Mesh
Kebanyakan jaringan yang menggunakan topologi mesh akan mengalami kesulitan dalam instalasi jika peralatan yang terhubung jumlahnya bertambah banyak, karena jumlah hubungan yang disambungkan semakin banyak jumlahnya. Jadi jika ada n peralatan (komputer) yang akan kita sambungkan, maka perhitungannya adalah n(n-1)/2. Jadi jika terdapat 5 komputer, maka hubungan yang akan dibuat sebanyak 5(5-1)/2 atau 10 hubungan. Jadi jika komputer yang terhubung semakin banyak maka semakin banyak pula hubungan yang akan diatur. Topologi ini cocok untuk digunakan pada sistem yang kecil.
Keuntungan dari Penggunaan Topologi Mesh
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi mesh:
• Keuntungan utama dari penggunaan topologi mesh adalah fault tolerance.
• Terjaminnya kapasitas channel komunikasi, karena memiliki hubungan yang berlebih.
• Relatif lebih mudah untuk dilakukan troubleshoot.
Kerugian dari Penggunaan Topologi Mesh
Topologi mesh mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Sulitnya pada saat melakukan instalasi dan melakukan konfigurasi ulang saat jumlah komputer dan peralatan-peralatan yang terhubung semakin meningkat jumlahnya.
• Biaya yang besar untuk memelihara hubungan yang berlebih.
Apa itu Topologi Jaringan?
Topologi pada dasarnya adalah peta dari sebuah jaringan. Topologi jaringan terbagi lagi menjadi dua, yaitu topologi secara fisik (physical topology) dan topologi secara logika (logical topology). Topologi secara fisik menjelaskan bagaimana susunan dari kabel dan komputer dan lokasi dari semua komponen jaringan. Sedangkan topologi secara logika menetapkan bagaimana informasi atau aliran data dalam jaringan.
Kabel atau koneksi dalam physical topology seringkali mengenai media jaringan (atau media fisik). Memilih bagaimana komputer-komputer akan dihubungkan dalam suatu jaringan sangat penting (terlebih lagi dalam jaringan perusahaan). Pemilihan topologi yang salah akan membuat sangat sulit untuk membenarkannya, karena hal tersebut tentu saja merugikan. Sangat penting untuk memilih bagaimana topologi yang tepat untuk jaringan yang akan digunakan. Biasanya suatu organisasi atau perusahaan merubah susunan fisik dan media fisik jaringannya sekali dalam sepuluh tahun. Jadi sangat penting untuk memilih konfigurasi yang tepat.
Dalam tulisan ini akan dijelaskan topologi yang paling umum digunakan:
• Bus
• Star (Bintang)
• Ring
• Mesh
1. Topologi Bus
Topologi bus seringkali digunakan ketika jaringannya berukuran kecil, simpel, atau bersifat sementara. Sangat sederhana dalam instalasi, dan ekonomis dalam hal biaya.
Bagaimana Jaringan Bus Bekerja
Tipikal dari jaringan bus, kabel hanya satu atau lebih wires, tanpa adanya alat tambahan yang menguatkan sinyal atau melewatkannya terus dari komputer ke komputer. Topologi bus merupakan topologi yang pasif. Ketika satu komputer mengirim sinyal up (dan down), semua komputer dalam jaringan menerima informasi, tetapi hanya satu komputer yang menyetujui informasi tersebut (komputer yang memiliki alamat yang sama dengan alamat yang menjadi tujuan dalam pesan). Sedangkan komputer yang lainnya akan menghiraukan pesan tersebut. Topologi dari jaringan bus menggunakan broadcast channel yang berarti setiap komputer atau peralatan yang terhubung dapat mendengar setiap pengiriman dan semuanya memiliki prioritas yang sama dalam menggunakan jaringan untuk mengirimkan data. Analoginya sebagai berikut bila berada disatu tempat dimana Anda berkumpul dengan teman-teman Anda, lalu Anda mencoba memanggil teman Anda yang bernama Joe, pasti teman Anda (yang bernama Joe) akan mendengar dan menghampiri Anda, dan yang lain tentu akan menghiraukannya.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Bus
Terdapat beberapa keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi bus:
• Bus adalah topologi yang sederhana, dapat diandalkan untuk penggunaan pada jaringan yang kecil, mudah untuk digunakan, dan mudah untuk dimengerti.
• Bus hanya membutuhkan kabel dalam jumlah yang sedikit untuk menghubungkan komputer-komputer atau peralatan-peralatan yang lain dan oleh karena itu biayanya lebih murah dibandingkan dengan susunan pengkabelan yang lain.
• Cukup mudah apabila kita ingin memperluas jaringan pada topologi bus. Dua kabel dapat digabungkan pada kabel yang lebih panjang dengan menggunakan BNC barrel connector, membuat kabel menjadi lebih panjang dan membolehkan komputer-komputer lain untuk untuk dihubungkan ke dalam jaringan.
• Sebuah repeater dapat digunakan untuk memperluas jaringan, repeater digunakan untuk menguatkan sinyal sehingga dapat menempuh jarak yang lebih jauh.
Kerugian dari penggunaan Topologi Bus
Kerugian jika menggunakan bus:
• Traffic (lalu lintas) yang padat akan sangat memperlambat bus. Karena setiap komputer dapat mengirim setiap waktu dan komputer-komputer yang ada pada jaringan bus tidak saling berkoordinasi satu sama lain dalam menyediakan waktu untuk mengirim. Dalam jaringan bus sejumlah komputer akan menghabiskan sejumlah bandwidth (kapasitas untuk mengirimkan informasi) dengan komputer-komputer yang saling mengganggu satu sama lain daripada berkomunikasi. Masalah tersebut akan bertambah parah jika jumlah komputer yang dihubungkan ke dalam jaringan bertambah banyak.
• Setiap barrel connector yang digunakan sebagai penghubung memperlemah sinyal elektrik yang dikirimkan, dan kebanyakan akan menghalangi sinyal untuk dapat diterima dengan benar.
• Sangat sulit untuk melakukan troubleshoot pada bus. Apabila ada kabel yang putus atau komputer yang tidak berfungsi dimanapun antara dua komputer akan menyebabkan komputer-komputer tersebut tidak dapat berkomunikasi satu sama lain. Putusnya kabel atau lepasnya konektor akan menyebabkan pemantulan dan membuat jaringan akan mati dan berhenti untuk beraktivitas. Untuk mengetahui putusnya kabel atau tidak, digunakan alat yang bernama Time Domain Reflector yang juga disebut cable tester.
• Lebih lambat dibandingkan dengan topologi yang lain.
2. Topologi Bintang (Star)
Dalam topologi star, semua kabel dihubungkan dari komputer-komputer ke lokasi pusat (central location), dimana semuanya terhubung ke suatu alat yang dinamakan hub.
Topologi star digunakan dalam jaringan yang padat, ketika endpoint dapat dicapai langsung dari lokasi pusat, kebutuhan untuk perluasan jaringan, dan membutuhkan kehandalan yang tinggi. Topologi ini merupakan susunan yang menggunakan lebih banyak kabel daripada bus dan karena semua komputer dan perangkat terhubung ke central point. Jadi bila ada salah satu komputer atau perangkat yang mengalami kerusakan maka tidak akan mempengaruhi yang lainnya (jaringan).
Bagaimana Jaringan Star Bekerja
Setiap komputer dalam jaringan bintang berkomunikasi dengan central hub yang mengirimkan kembali pesan ke semua komputer (dalam broadcast star network) atau hanya ke komputer yang dituju (dalam switched star network). Hub dalam broadcast star network dapat menjadi aktif ataupun pasif. Active hub memperbaharui sinyal elektrik yang diterima dan mengirimkannya ke semua komputer yang terhubung ke hub. Hub tipe tersebut sering disebut juga dengan multiport repeater. Jika kita menggunakan hub memiliki 32 port, dengan seluruh port terisi, maka collision akan sering terjadi yang akan mengakibatkan kinerja jaringan menurun. Untuk menghindari hal tersebut kita bisa menggunakan switch yang memiliki kemampuan untuk menentukan jalur tujuan data. Active hub dan switch membutuhkan tenaga listrik untuk menjalankannya. Pasisive hub, seperti wiring panel atau blok punch-down, hanya berfungsi sebagai titik koneksi (connection point) dan tidak melakukan penguatan sinyal atau memperbaharui sinyal. Passive hub tidak membutuhkan tenaga listrik untuk menjalankannya.
3. Jaringan Bintang Hybrid (Hybrid Star Network)
Kita dapat menggunakan beberapa tipe kabel untuk mengimplementasikan jaringan star. Hybrid hub dapat digunakan untuk mengakomodasi beberapa tipe kabel dalam satu jaringan bintang.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Star
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi star:
• Cukup mudah untuk mengubah dan menambah komputer ke dalam jaringan yang menggunakan topologi star tanpa mengganggu aktvitas jaringan yang sedang berlangsung. Kita hanya tinggal menambah kabel baru dari komputer kita ke lokasi pusat (central location) dan pasangkan kabel tersebut ke hub. Bila kapasitas dari hub pusat sudah melebihi, maka kita tinggal mengganti hub tersebut dengan hub yang memiliki jumlah port yang lebih banyak.
• Pusat dari jaringan star merupakan tempat yang baik untuk menentukan diagnosa kesalahan yang terjadi dalam jaringan. Intelligent hub merupakan hub yang dilengkapi dengan microprocessors yang selain memiliki fitur sebagai tambahan untuk mengulang sinyal jaringan juga melakukan monitor yang terpusat dan manajemen terhadap jaringan.
• Apabila satu komputer yang mengalami kerusakan dalam jaringan maka komputer tersebut tidak akan membuat mati seluruh jaringan star. Hub dapat mendeteksi
kesalahan dalam jaringan dan memisahkan komputer yang rusak tersebut dari jaringan dan memperkenankan jaringan untuk beroperasi kembali.
• Kita dapat menggunakan beberapa tipe kabel di dalam jaringan yang sama dengan hub yang dapat mengakomodasi tipe kabel yang berbeda.
Kekurangan dari penggunaan Topologi Star
Topologi star mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Memiliki satu titik kesalahan, terletak pada hub. Jika hub pusat mengalami kegagalan, maka seluruh jaringan akan gagal untuk beroperasi.
• Memerlukan alat pada central point untuk mem-broadcast ulang atau pergantian traffic jaringan (switch network traffic).
• Membutuhkan lebih banyak kabel karena semua kabel jaringan harus ditarik ke satu central point, jadi lebih banyak membutuhkan lebih banyak kabel daripada topologi jaringan yang lain.
4. Topologi Cincin (Ring)
Penempatan kabel yang digunakan dalam ring menggunakan desain yang sederhana. Pada topologi ring, setiap komputer terhubung ke komputer selanjutnya, dengan komputer terakhir terhubung ke komputer yang pertama. Tetapi sayangnya, jika akan dilakukan penambahan atau pengurangan komputer dalam jaringan tentu saja akan mengganggu keseluruhan jaringan. 6
Topologi ring digunakan dalam jaringan yang memiliki performance tinggi, jaringan yang membutuhkan bandwidth untuk fitur yang time-sensitive seperti video dan audio, atau ketika performance dibutuhkan saat komputer yang terhubung ke jaringan dalam jumlah yang banyak.
Bagaimana Jaringan Ring Bekerja
Setiap komputer terhubung ke komputer selanjutnya dalam ring, dan setiap komputer mengirim apa yang diterima dari komputer sebelumnya. Pesan-pesan mengalir melalui ring dalam satu arah. Setiap komputer yang mengirimkan apa yang diterimanya, ring adalah jaringan yang aktif. Tidak ada akhir pada ring.
Beberapa jaringan ring melakukan token passing. Pesan singkat yang disebut dengan token dijalankan melalui ring sampai sebuah komputer menginginkan untuk mengirim informasi ke komputer yang lain. Komputer tersebut lalu mengubah token tersebut, dengan menambahkan alamatnya dan menambah data, dan mengirimnya melalui ring. Lalu setiap komputer secara berurutan akan menerima token tersebut dan mengirimkan informasi ke komputer selanjutnya sampai komputer dengan alamat yang dituju dicapai atau token kembali ke komputer pengirim (asal pengirim pesan). Komputer penerima akan membalas pesan ke asal pengirim pesan tadi mengindikasikan bahwa pesan sudah diterima. Lalu asal pengirim pesan akan membuat token yang lain dan menaruhnya di dalam jaringan, dan token tersebut akan terus berputar sampai ada komputer lain yang menangkap token tersebut dan siap untuk memulai pengiriman.
Keuntungan dari penggunaan Topologi Ring
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi ring:
• Tidak ada komputer yang memonopoli jaringan, karena setiap komputer mempunyai hak akses yang sama terhadap token.
• Data mengalir dalam satu arah sehingga terjadinya collision dapat dihindarkan.
Kekurangan dari penggunaan Topologi Ring
Topologi ring mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Apabila ada satu komputer dalam ring yang gagal berfungsi, maka akan mempengaruhi keseluruhan jaringan.
• Sulit untuk mengatasi kerusakan di jaringan yang menggunakan topologi ring.
• Menambah atau mengurangi komputer akan mengacaukan jaringan.
• Sulit untuk melakukan konfigurasi ulang.
5. Topologi Mesh
Di antara topologi yang lain topologi mesh memiliki hubungan yang berlebihan antara peralatan-peralatan yang ada. Jadi susunannya, setiap peralatan yang ada didalam jaringan saling terhubung satu sama lain. Dapat dibayangkan jika jumlah peralatan yang terhubung sangat banyak, tentunya ini akan sangat sulit sekali untuk dikendalikan dibandingkan hanya sedikit peralatan saja yang terhubung.
Instalasi Mesh
Kebanyakan jaringan yang menggunakan topologi mesh akan mengalami kesulitan dalam instalasi jika peralatan yang terhubung jumlahnya bertambah banyak, karena jumlah hubungan yang disambungkan semakin banyak jumlahnya. Jadi jika ada n peralatan (komputer) yang akan kita sambungkan, maka perhitungannya adalah n(n-1)/2. Jadi jika terdapat 5 komputer, maka hubungan yang akan dibuat sebanyak 5(5-1)/2 atau 10 hubungan. Jadi jika komputer yang terhubung semakin banyak maka semakin banyak pula hubungan yang akan diatur. Topologi ini cocok untuk digunakan pada sistem yang kecil.
Keuntungan dari Penggunaan Topologi Mesh
Keuntungan dari penggunaan topologi mesh:
• Keuntungan utama dari penggunaan topologi mesh adalah fault tolerance.
• Terjaminnya kapasitas channel komunikasi, karena memiliki hubungan yang berlebih.
• Relatif lebih mudah untuk dilakukan troubleshoot.
Kerugian dari Penggunaan Topologi Mesh
Topologi mesh mempunyai kekurangan sebagai berikut:
• Sulitnya pada saat melakukan instalasi dan melakukan konfigurasi ulang saat jumlah komputer dan peralatan-peralatan yang terhubung semakin meningkat jumlahnya.
• Biaya yang besar untuk memelihara hubungan yang berlebih.
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